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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, June 2009, p. 4093-4100, Vol. 75, No. 12
0099-2240/09/$08.00+0 doi:10.1128/AEM.02949-08
Copyright © 2009, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Increased Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli in Mature Biofilms
,
Akinobu Ito,
Asami Taniuchi,
Thithiwat May,
Koji Kawata, and
Satoshi Okabe*
Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North-13, West-8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
Received 27 December 2008/ Accepted 7 April 2009
Biofilms are considered to be highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this high resistance of biofilms, including restricted penetration of antimicrobial agents into biofilms, slow growth owing to nutrient limitation, expression of genes involved in the general stress response, and emergence of a biofilm-specific phenotype. However, since combinations of these factors are involved in most biofilm studies, it is still difficult to fully understand the mechanisms of biofilm resistance to antibiotics. In this study, the antibiotic susceptibility of Escherichia coli cells in biofilms was investigated with exclusion of the effects of the restricted penetration of antimicrobial agents into biofilms and the slow growth owing to nutrient limitation. Three different antibiotics, ampicillin (100 µg/ml), kanamycin (25 µg/ml), and ofloxacin (10 µg/ml), were applied directly to cells in the deeper layers of mature biofilms that developed in flow cells after removal of the surface layers of the biofilms. The results of the antibiotic treatment analyses revealed that ofloxacin and kanamycin were effective against biofilm cells, whereas ampicillin did not kill the cells, resulting in regrowth of the biofilm after the ampicillin treatment was discontinued. LIVE/DEAD staining revealed that a small fraction of resistant cells emerged in the deeper layers of the mature biofilms and that these cells were still alive even after 24 h of ampicillin treatment. Furthermore, to determine which genes in the biofilm cells are induced, allowing increased resistance to ampicillin, global gene expression was analyzed at different stages of biofilm formation, the attachment, colony formation, and maturation stages. The results showed that significant changes in gene expression occurred during biofilm formation, which were partly induced by rpoS expression. Based on the experimental data, it is likely that the observed resistance of biofilms can be attributed to formation of ampicillin-resistant subpopulations in the deeper layers of mature biofilms but not in young colony biofilms and that the production and resistance of the subpopulations were aided by biofilm-specific phenotypes, like slow growth and induction of rpoS-mediated stress responses.
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North-13, West-8, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan. Phone and fax: 81-(0)-11-706-6266. E-mail: sokabe{at}eng.hokudai.ac.jp
Published ahead of print on 17 April 2009.
Supplemental material for this article may be found at http://aem.asm.org/.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, June 2009, p. 4093-4100, Vol. 75, No. 12
0099-2240/09/$08.00+0 doi:10.1128/AEM.02949-08
Copyright © 2009, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
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[Abstract] [Full Text]
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