INTRODUCTION

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Recent studies have shown the biodegradative abilities of Mycobacterium species: they are able to metabolize xenobiotics such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (4, 10, 13, 14, 29), chlorophenols (11), trichloroethylene (33), vinyl chloride (12), amines (6), and isonicotinate (18). Mycobacterium spp. were also found to attack the heterocyclic, secondary amine morpholine (C₄H₉NO), which had been considered to be persistent for many years. This chemical has great industrial importance and a wide range of applications (22); it is used in the manufacture of rubber additives and also as a very versatile solvent, as an anticorrosive agent, and in the production of various drugs and pesticides. Its high solubility in water and its high potential for N nitrosation, which gives the potent mutagen and carcinogen N-nitrosomorpholine (9, 21, 27), make this xenobiotic of special interest from an environmental point of view. Knapp et al. (15) first discovered two strains of Mycobacterium (MorD and MorG) that were able to utilize morpholine as a sole source of carbon, nitrogen, and energy. A few years later, Dmitrenko et al. (5) isolated a strain of Arthrobacter, and Cech et al. (3) found a strain of Mycobacterium aurum MO1 that had morpholine degradation properties. Knapp's group studied other Mycobacterium strains isolated from activated sludges (1, 16, 17). In the companion paper (24), we describe another Mycobacterium strain that is able to degrade morpholine.

More recently, a few studies were carried out in order to understand the morpholine biodegradation process and its regulation. Swain et al. (28) proposed a hypothetical pathway for the biodegradation of morpholine by Mycobacterium chelonae (Fig. 1) that could proceed via 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate and glycolate and/or ethanolamine. Mazure and Truffaut (19) described the degradation of morpholine by M. aurum MO1. They proposed that M. aurum grown on morpholine could degrade intermediary compounds via the ethanolamine and glycolate routes. Depending on the morpholine concentration in the medium, one pathway could be used while the other was inhibited.

View larger version (12K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 1.   Hypothetical morpholine biodegradation pathway of M. chelonae proposed by Swain et al. (28). CoA, coenzyme A.

However, to date, no tool for the direct detection of intermediates, or even of morpholine, has been available. Only indirect strategies were developed, such as chemical oxygen demand, optical density, or NH₃ measurements, growth on intermediates, or in vitro enzyme assays. Consequently, only hypothetical pathways were proposed, and limited interpretations of various experiments were made.

In this work we describe the degradation of morpholine by M. aurum MO1 by using in situ ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy. This technique has been previously applied in medical fields for analyzing biological fluids (20, 23) and also for studying microbial physiology with extracts or culture medium (8, 30, 31). More recently, Gaines et al. (7) described the first use of ¹H-NMR spectroscopy to monitor the catabolism of mixtures of aromatic compounds by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus grown in fully deuterated medium. This method is very interesting and allowed the identification and quantification of metabolites which accumulated during growth by rendering invisible the fully deuterated microbial cultures. However, it cannot be used in all circumstances, because it requires specialized growth medium and large quantities of D₂O. In this work, we studied the degradative metabolism of M. aurum MO1 by directly analyzing the incubation medium in H₂O. Our method, using normal water, can be more generally used and does not perturb the system being studied (the deuterated compounds can affect the enzymatic reactions). ¹H-NMR spectroscopy is both qualitative and quantitative, so it allowed us to establish unambiguously some steps of morpholine degradation by this strain.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Chemicals. Morpholine, sodium acetate, 2-(2-aminoethoxy)ethanol, and glycolic acid were purchased from Aldrich Chemical (Sigma Aldrich Sarl, St. Quentin Fallavier, France), ethanolamine was purchased from Prolabo (Vault en Velin, France), and tetradeuterated sodium trimethylsilylpropionate (TSPd₄) was purchased from EurisoTop (St. Aubin, France).

Growth conditions. M. aurum MO1 cultures were grown in 100 ml of Trypticase soy broth (bioMérieux, Marcy-L'Etoile, France) in 500-ml Erlenmeyer flasks incubated at 30°C with agitation at 200 rpm. They were harvested after 48 h of culture.

Incubation with xenobiotics. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 9,000 × g for 15 min at 5°C. The supernatant was eliminated, and the pellet was washed twice with Knapp buffer (containing, per liter of distilled water, KH₂PO₄ [1 g], K₂HPO₄ [1 g], FeCl₃ [4 mg], and MgSO₄ · 7H₂O [40 mg], pH 6.6) and finally resuspended in this buffer (5 g of wet cells in 50 ml of buffer). The cells were incubated with 10 mM morpholine, 10 mM ethanolamine, or 13 mM glycolic acid as the only source of energy in a 500-ml Erlenmeyer flask at 30°C with agitation (200 rpm). Incubation of cells under the same conditions in the absence of substrate constituted a negative control, as did incubation of the substrate in the buffer without cells. Samples (1 ml) were taken every hour for 12 h and from time to time until 72 h. They were centrifuged at 12,000 × g for 5 min. The supernatants were isolated and immediately frozen until NMR analysis.

¹H-NMR spectroscopy. (i) Preparation of NMR samples. The supernatant (540 µl) was supplemented with 60 µl of a 8 mM solution of TSPd₄ in D₂O and adjusted to pH 10 with 4 N NaOH. pH adjustment avoided changes in chemical shifts. D₂O was used for locking and shimming. TSPd₄ constituted a reference for chemical shifts (0 ppm) and quantification.

(ii) ¹H-NMR spectra. ¹H NMR was performed at 300.13 MHz on a 300 MSL Bruker spectrometer at 21°C with 5-mm-diameter tubes containing 500 µl of sample; water was suppressed by saturation with a classical NOE Bruker program. About 150 scans were collected (90° pulse, 3.7 µs; relaxation delay, 6 s; acquisition time, 1.024 s; 8,000 data points; saturation time, 2 s). No filter was applied before Fourier transformation, but a baseline correction was performed on spectra before integration with Bruker software. Under these conditions, the limit of quantification was in the range of 0.05 mM.

(iii) Quantification of metabolites. The concentration of metabolites was calculated as follows: [m] = (9A₀ × [TSPd₄])/(b × A_ref), where [m] is the concentration of metabolite m, A₀ is the area of metabolite m resonance in the ¹H-NMR spectrum, [TSPd₄] is the concentration of the reference, A_ref is the area of reference resonance in the ¹H-NMR spectrum, b is the number of protons of metabolite m in the signal integrated, and 9 is the number of protons resonating at 0 ppm.

Synthesis of 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate. (i) Protection of the amino function. The reaction was conducted as described previously (25). To a solution of 500 mg (4.8 mmol) of 2-(2-aminoethoxy)ethanol in 10 ml of ethyl acetate, stirred at room temperature, was added 1.25 g (1.2 equivalents, 5.8 mmol) of di-tert-butyldicarbonate. The mixture was stirred overnight at room temperature. The solvent was then evaporated under vacuum, and the residue was purified by column chromatography (the eluent was pentane-ether [50:50, vol/vol]). The yield was 92%, with ¹H NMR (400.13 MHz, CDCl₃)  ppm 1.40 (s, 9H), 3.15 (s, 1H), 3.25 (t, 2H, J = 5 Hz), 3.46 to 3.56 (m, 4H), 3.75 (t, 2H, J = 4 Hz), 5.30 (s, 1H); ¹³C NMR (100.62 MHz, CDCl₃)  ppm 27.9 (C-7), 39.8 (C-4), 60.7 (C-1), 69.7 (C-3), 71.8 (C-2), 78.4 (C-6), 155.9 (C-5).

(ii) Oxidation of the N-protected alcohol. The oxidation of the N-protected alcohol was performed as previously described (2). A flask was charged with 4.9 ml of carbon tetrachloride, 4.9 ml of acetonitrile, 7.3 ml of water, 0.5 g (2.45 mmol) of the N-protected alcohol, and 2.14 g (4.1 equivalents, 10 mmol) of sodium periodate (NaIO₄). The mixture was stirred vigorously for 15 min. To this biphasic solution, 12.2 mg (0.06 mmol) of RuCl₃ · 3H₂O was added, and the mixture was stirred vigorously for 6 h at room temperature. Then, 24.4 ml of dichloromethane was added, and the phases were separated. The upper aqueous layer was extracted three times with dichloromethane. The combined organic extracts were dried over anhydrous MgSO₄ and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography (the eluent was ethyl acetate with a few drops of acetic acid until the elution of the aldehyde and then methanol). The yield was 28%, with ¹H NMR (400.13 MHz, CDCl₃)  ppm 1.45 (s, 9H), 3.35 (t, 2H, J = 5 Hz), 3.65 (t, 2H, J = 5 Hz), 4.10 (s, 2H), 5.30 (s, 1H), 8.20 (s, 1H).

(iii) Deprotection of the amino group. The amino group was deprotected as described previously (26). A suspension of 40 mg (0.18 mmol) of the N-protected acid in 10 ml of a 3 N HCl solution in ethyl acetate was stirred vigorously at room temperature for 30 min. The solution was removed in vacuo, and the oil was triturated with ether (3 ml). The ether layer was removed, and the aqueous phase was evaporated. After the sample was dried overnight, the pure chlorhydrate of 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate was obtained with a yield of 85%, with ¹H NMR (400.13 MHz, D₂O)  ppm 3.97 (s, 1H), 3.69 (t, 2H, J = 3.6 Hz), 3.07 (t, 2H, J = 3.6 Hz).

	RESULTS

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Degradation of morpholine by M. aurum MO1. Resting M. aurum MO1 cells (5 g of wet cells in 50 ml of Knapp buffer) were incubated with 10 mM morpholine at 30°C with agitation (200 rpm) for 72 h.

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View larger version (21K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 2.   (A) Kinetics of morpholine degradation by M. aurum MO1. Resting cells (5 g of wet cells in 50 ml of Knapp buffer [KH2PO4, 1 g · liter1; K2HPO4, 1 g · liter1; FeCl3, 4 mg · liter1; MgSO4 · 7H2O, 40 mg · liter1; pH 6.6]) were incubated with 10 mM morpholine at 30°C with agitation (200 rpm) for 72 h. Samples (1 ml) were collected every hour for 12 h and from time to time until 72 h; after centrifugation, the supernatants of these samples were analyzed by 1H-NMR spectroscopy at 300.13 MHz. TSPd4 was used as a reference for chemical shifts and quantification. (B). Expanded scale, from 2.60 to 3.98 ppm, of the 10-h spectrum. M, morpholine; G, glycolate; Y, 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate.

View larger version (5K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 3.   Synthesis of the chlorhydrate of 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate. Boc2O, di-tert-butyldicarbonate; EtOAc, ethyl acetate.

View larger version (24K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 4.   Time courses for the concentrations of morpholine (×), glycolate (), and 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate () during the degradation of morpholine (10 mM) by M. aurum MO1 cells at 100 g · liter1. The quantification was made by integrating the signals in 1H-NMR spectra relative to the area for the reference TSPd4 (see Fig. 2). (Inset) Data from five independant experiments concerning the degradation of morpholine; a polynomial calculation was used to plot the final curve.

Degradation of ethanolamine and glycolic acid by M. aurum MO1. Mazure and Truffaut (19) showed that M. aurum MO1 was able to grow on ethanolamine in the absence of morpholine. In contrast, under the same conditions, no growth was observed on glycolic acid. This prompted us to monitor the kinetics of degradation of these two compounds, which are thought to be intermediates in the morpholine biodegradation pathway (Fig. 1). The most efficient condition for morpholine degradation, i.e., 100 g of bacteria · liter¹, was used, with 10 mM ethanolamine or 13 mM glycolate.

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 5.   Kinetics of degradation of ethanolamine (10 mM) by M. aurum MO1 (100 g · liter1). The conditions were as described for Fig. 2. (A) 1H-NMR spectrum collected after 5 h of incubation. (B) Time courses for the concentrations of ethanolamine (×) and acetate ().

View larger version (17K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIG. 6.   Kinetics of degradation of glycolic acid (13 mM) by M. aurum MO1 (100 g · liter1) without pH adjustment () and with adjustment of the pH to 7 by KOH (×), NH4OH (), and morpholine ().

	DISCUSSION

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In this paper, ¹H-NMR spectroscopy, performed directly on the incubation medium, was shown to be a useful tool to study the degradation of morpholine by M. aurum MO1. This approach was useful to directly quantify the degradation of morpholine. The NMR spectra collected at different incubation times showed that this strain is able to degrade morpholine at a rate of 0.85 mM/h under our conditions. It is worth noting that biodegradation began immediately; no latency period was observed. This observation shows that either no induction existed or the induction time was very short (less than 1 h).

The ¹H-NMR technique also allowed us to identify unambiguously, for the first time, glycolate and 2-(2-aminoethoxy)acetate as intermediates of the biodegradation pathway. This suggests that M. aurum MO1 cleaved the C-N bond of the morpholine ring. These intermediates were suggested by Swain et al. (28) in the case of M. chelonae MorG but were never directly evidenced. In our experiments we did not find evidence of intermediates of the ethanolamine branch (acetaldehyde or acetate) during incubation with morpholine. However, we have shown that M. aurum cells could degrade ethanolamine through the classical pathway via acetate. This confirms the results of Mazure and Truffaut (19) concerning growth on this substrate without induction of morpholine. It is interesting that the rate of degradation of ethanolamine measured under our conditions (1.25 mM/h) was threefold higher than that of morpholine (0.85 mM/h).

Glycolate has been identified as the major intermediate of the morpholine degradation pathway. Although M. aurum MO1 was not able to grow on glycolic acid (19), we have shown that glycolic acid was degraded very rapidly by this strain (about 3.25 mM/hour). This degradation is pH dependent and can occur only if the pH is not too acidic. The nature of the base used for pH adjustment is not important. Mazure and Truffaut (19) reported that no growth was detected in the absence of morpholine with glycolic acid at pH 6.5 but that the presence of 0.1 g of morpholine · liter¹ induced degradation of this acid. Our results are different, showing a complete degradation of glycolate in the absence of morpholine (assays with KOH or NH₄OH). Therefore, the enzymes required for this degradation are present in the microorganism, and no induction by morpholine is necessary.

In conclusion, this work is a pioneer in the direct quantification and identification of the morpholine degradation pathway of M. aurum MO1. The use of in situ ¹H-NMR spectroscopy allows direct determination of the intermediates formed. Work is now in progress to identify other metabolites (particularly by analyzing the intracellular medium) and to understand the regulation of this pathway.

The methodology described here, using ¹H-NMR spectroscopy, is general and easy to apply and could be used to investigate many biodegradative processes. This technique was used in the following companion paper (24) to study the morpholine biodegradation pathway with another strain. In this second article, we show evidence for the involvement of a cytochrome P-450 in morpholine degradation.