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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 1999, p. 1900-1903, Vol. 65, No. 5
0099-2240/99/$04.00+0
Copyright © 1999, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
Role of Bacillus thuringiensis Toxin
Domains in Toxicity and Receptor Binding in the Diamondback
Moth
V.
Ballester,1
F.
Granero,1
R. A.
de
Maagd,2
D.
Bosch,2
J. L.
Ménsua,1 and
J.
Ferré1,*
Department of Genetics, Universitat de
València, 46100-Burjassot (València),
Spain,1 and DLO-Centre for Plant
Breeding and Reproduction Research, 6700 AA Wageningen, The
Netherlands2
Received 5 November 1998/Accepted 9 February 1999
 |
ABSTRACT |
The toxic fragment of Bacillus thuringiensis crystal
proteins consists of three distinct structural domains. There is
evidence that domain I is involved in pore formation and that domain II is involved in receptor binding and specificity. It has been found that, in some cases, domain III is also important in determining specificity. Furthermore, involvement of domain III in binding has also
been reported recently. To investigate the role of toxin domains in the
diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), we used hybrid
toxins with domain III substitutions among Cry1C, Cry1E, and Cry1Ab.
Neither Cry1E nor G27 (a hybrid with domains I and II from Cry1E and
domain III from Cry1C) was toxic, whereas Cry1C and F26 (the reciprocal
hybrid) were equally toxic. H04 (a hybrid with domains I and II from
Cry1Ab and domain III from Cry1C) showed toxicity that was of a similar
level as that of Cry1Ab and significantly higher than that of Cry1C.
Binding assays with 125I-Cry1C showed that Cry1C and F26
competed for the same binding sites on midgut membrane vesicles,
whereas Cry1E, G27, and H04 did not bind to these sites. Our results
show that, in contrast to findings in other insects for the toxins and
hybrids used here, toxin specificity as well as specificity of binding
to membrane vesicles in the diamondback moth is mediated by domain II
(and/or I) and not by domain III.
| |
INTRODUCTION |
From the standpoint of practical
application, the characteristic of the gram-positive spore-forming
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes it most
interesting is the production, during sporulation, of proteinaceous
crystals which are toxic to some families of insects (17,
27). B. thuringiensis toxins (also called crystal proteins) can be grouped into different classes based on sequence homology and insecticidal specificity. Of these, the best studied are
the Cry1 class of crystal proteins, which are synthesized as 130-kDa
protoxins and are active against Lepidoptera (17). These
protoxins are solubilized in the alkaline environment of the
Lepidoptera larval midgut, and then processing by midgut proteases results in a relatively stable, mature 60- to 65-kDa toxin. In susceptible insects, the activated toxins bind to the midgut epithelium and form membrane pores, which results in lysis of the epithelial cells
and eventually in the death of the insect (17, 18, 27). Binding studies with purified toxins and membrane vesicles prepared from larval midguts demonstrated that the presence of receptors for a
specific crystal protein is essential for toxicity and that different
receptors for different crystal proteins can be present (16,
32). The importance of epithelial membrane receptors became even
clearer with the observation that insects which had become resistant to
one or several toxins often had lost the capacity for specific binding
to these toxins because of either loss or modification of the receptors
on the midgut epithelium (9, 10, 31).
As can be deduced from the three-dimensional structure of the Cry3A
(coleopteran-specific) and Cry1Aa (lepidopteran-specific) B. thuringiensis toxins (15, 21), toxic fragments of
crystal proteins are composed of three distinct structural domains.
Domain I, the most N-terminal domain, consists of a bundle of
-helices; domains II and III contain mostly 
-sheets. Domain I is
thought to be involved in pore formation, and domain II is thought to be involved in receptor binding and toxin specificity. The function of
the C-terminal domain III was less clear for a long time, although experiments with hybrid toxins in which this domain had been exchanged showed that it can play an important role in determining the
specificity of the toxin (2, 5, 13, 23). It was found that
exchange of domain III can affect recognition of putative receptors on ligand blots of brush border membrane proteins (6, 20).
Finally, by using different techniques, it was shown that domain III of Cry1Ac is involved in the specificity of binding to the putative Cry1Ac
receptor from Manduca sexta, aminopeptidase N, as well as in
the binding to intact membranes (7). Thus, it appears that
at least in some insects domain III plays an important role in
specificity through its involvement in specific binding to the target membranes.
In the present study we used hybrid toxins with domain III
substitutions in Cry1C, Cry1E, and Cry1Ab to directly test the possible
role of domain III in toxin specificity and in midgut epithelial
membrane binding specificity in the diamondback moth (Plutella
xylostella).
| |
MATERIALS AND METHODS |
Source of toxins.
All analyses were carried out with
trypsin-activated crystal proteins. Cry1C, Cry1E, Cry1Ab, and all
hybrid toxins were produced in Escherichia coli XL-1 and
were purified by fast protein liquid chromatography as described
previously (2). Construction of the genes for hybrid toxins
F26 (with domain I of Cry1C, domain II of Cry1C, and domain III of
Cry1E; the domain composition is referred to herein as 1C/1C/1E), G27
(1E/1E/1C), and H04 (1Ab/1Ab/1C) is described elsewhere (2,
5).
Insects and bioassays.
The colony of the diamondback moth
(LAB-V colony) was established from pupae collected in The Netherlands
and reared in the laboratory without exposure to insecticides for more
than 9 years. Insects were reared on fresh cabbage leaves at 25°C and
70 to 80% relative humidity and with a photoperiod of 16 h of
light and 8 h of dark. Bioassays were performed with third-instar
larvae on an artificial diet as previously described (9).
Five dilutions of the toxins being tested were prepared in carbonate
buffer (50 mM Na2CO3, 10 mM dithiothreitol [pH
10.0]). Fifty-microliter aliquots were applied uniformly over the
surface of artificial diet dispensed in 2-cm2 wells.
Carbonate buffer was used as a control for natural mortality. Each
dilution was replicated two to four times with 12 to 24 larvae. Mortality was scored after 4 days, and the 50% lethal concentration (LC50; defined as the concentration required to kill 50%
of the insects) and the slopes of the log dose-mortality regression
line were obtained by probit analysis with the POLO computer program (26).
Binding assays.
Brush border membrane vesicles were prepared
from last-instar whole larvae by the differential magnesium
precipitation method (8, 35) and kept at 
80°C until used.
Since small peptides associated to Cry1C interfere in 125I
labeling (22), -mercaptoethanol was added (final
concentration, 0.1%) to a solution of Cry1C to break possible
disulfide bonds between the toxin and associated peptides generated by
the trypsin digestion. After incubation at room temperature for 2 h, the solution was loaded onto a Mono-Q HR5/5 column equilibrated with
20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.6). Cry1C was eluted with a 0 to 0.6 M NaCl
gradient in 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.6). Purified Cry1C (25 µg) was
labeled with Na125I (0.5 mCi) by using IodoGen (Pierce)
(16). Labeled Cry1C was separated from free iodine with a
Bio-Gel P30 (Bio-Rad) column. Specific activity was 4.2 mCi/mg of
protein, as determined by a sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
method (33).
Binding experiments were performed in a final volume of 0.1 ml of
binding buffer (8 mM Na
2HPO
4, 2 mM
KH
2PO
4, 150 mM NaCl [pH
7.4], 0.1% bovine
serum albumin) containing 10 µg of membrane
vesicle proteins, 0.2 nM
125I-labeled Cry1C, and different concentrations of
nonlabeled competitor.
Incubations were carried out at room temperature
for 90 min. Bound
and free
125I-labeled Cry1C proteins were
separated by filtration through
GF/F glass fiber filters (Whatman)
presoaked in binding buffer
with 0.5% bovine serum albumin. Filters
were washed with 5 ml
of cold binding buffer, and the radioactivity
retained was measured
in a 1282 Compugamma CS gamma counter (LKB).
Nonspecific binding
was determined by adding a 500-fold excess of
nonlabeled Cry1C.
Maximum specific binding was about 3% of total
radioactivity.
Replicate data from a single batch of brush border
membrane vesicles
were analyzed with the LIGAND computer program
(
25).
| |
RESULTS |
Toxicity of wild-type and hybrid toxins.
Involvement of toxin
domains in toxin specificity was studied with the wild-type toxins
Cry1Ab, Cry1C, and Cry1E, as well as with hybrid toxins, between Cry1C
and Cry1Ab (H04 [1Ab/1Ab/1C]) and between Cry1C and Cry1E (F26
[1C/1C/1E] and G27 [1E/1E/1C]) (Fig.
1). The wild-type toxins differed
considerably in toxicity against the diamondback moth, with Cry1Ab
being the most active toxin (LC50 = 15 ng/cm2
of artificial diet), Cry1C being moderately active (LC50 = 117 ng/cm2), and Cry1E being very slightly toxic or not
toxic at all (LC50 > 1,600 ng/cm2) (Table
1). Among the hybrid toxins, those with
domains I and II from Cry1Ab (H04) or from Cry1C (F26) showed toxicity
against the diamondback moth, whereas the hybrid toxin with domains I and II from Cry1E (G27) did not (Table 1). Moreover, LC50s
of the hybrid toxins were not significantly different from those of the
respective wild-type toxins from which their domains I and II were
derived. Toxins carrying the same domain III (such as either Cry1E and
F26 or G27, Cry1C, and H04) did not show any similarity in terms of
toxicity.
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FIG. 1.
Schematic representation of the structures of wild-type
and hybrid toxins used in this study. Only the protease-resistant
fragment is shown. Hybrids were obtained by a crossover at the junction
of domains II and III.
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TABLE 1.
Toxicity of Cry1Ab, Cry1C, Cry1E, and some of their
hybrids to third-instar larvae from a laboratory colony
of P. xylostella
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|
Binding of Cry1C to brush border membrane vesicles and competition
studies.
Binding of 125I-labeled Cry1C was competed
effectively by nonlabeled Cry1C and by F26 but not by G27 or H04 (Fig.
2). Thus, only those toxins carrying the
same domains I and II and not those carrying the same domain III
competed for the same binding sites. The dissociation constant and
concentration of binding sites for Cry1C (Kd = 7.1 ± 1.1 nM; Rt = 7.2 ± 1.6
pmol/mg of vesicle protein) and for F26 (Kd = 7.2 ± 0.7 nM; Rt = 8.7 ± 1.6
pmol/mg of vesicle protein) were essentially identical. Replacement of
domain III of Cry1C by that of Cry1E (in hybrid F26) did not affect its
binding parameters, either qualitatively or quantitatively.
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FIG. 2.
Binding of 125I-labeled Cry1C to brush
border membrane vesicles at increasing concentrations of nonlabeled
competitor.  (broken line), Cry1C;  (solid line), F26;  , H04;
 , G27.
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| |
DISCUSSION |
The information provided by studies on high-resolution
three-dimensional structures of Cry3A and Cry1Aa toxins (15,
21), site-directed mutagenesis (12, 19), and the
correlation between cross-resistance and sequence similarity of
B. thuringiensis toxins (29) strongly suggests
that domain II is involved in binding and/or receptor interaction in
the midgut epithelial membrane and thus is one major determinant of
toxin specificity. Similarly, there is strong experimental evidence
that domain I is involved in membrane insertion to form the pore
(4, 11, 34). However, the role of domain III has only
recently become clearer. Domain-swapping experiments showed that
substitution of domain III of a slightly active toxin, such as that of
Cry1Aa for Heliothis virescens by that of the very active
Cry1Ac, can increase considerably its toxicity to that insect
(13). Cry1Ab and Cry1E, which are both inactive for
Spodoptera exigua, can be rendered toxic for this insect by
replacing their domains III by that of the active Cry1C (2,
5). For S. exigua, this resulted in hybrid toxins that were even more active than their parental toxin Cry1C (6). Thus, at least in these insects, domain III is also an important determinant of toxin specificity. Several functions for domain III at
the molecular level have been proposed. It was suggested that domain
III confers stability on the toxin molecule (21). Mutagenesis experiments have shown that it may be involved in pore
formation (3, 36). More recently it was shown that domain III exchange may change the recognition of putative receptors on ligand
blots of separated brush border membrane vesicle proteins of several
insects (5, 6, 20), suggesting that domain III has a
function in binding. Finally, domain III of Cry1Ac was shown to be
involved in specific binding to the putative receptor aminopeptidase N
of M. sexta, as well as to intact brush border membrane
vesicles, and in both cases domain III was involved in the inhibition
of binding by the sugar N-acetylgalactosamine
(7). Thus, it appears that in at least some insects domain
III plays a role in determining specificity through its involvement in
high-affinity binding.
To determine which of the above-mentioned roles of domain III are
applicable to the diamondback moth, we tested a series of hybrid toxins
with domains I and II from one toxin and domain III from another. As in
S. exigua and Mamestra brassicae, Cry1E has
little or no toxicity to the diamondback moth. In contrast to the
results for the former two insects, we found that domain III
substitution in Cry1E has no effect on toxicity against the diamondback
moth, since G27 (a hybrid with domains I and II from Cry1E and domain
III from Cry1C) is not toxic. Whereas Cry1E binding was demonstrated
for S. exigua, the diamondback moth seems to lack
high-affinity midgut receptors for Cry1E (24). This suggests that the lack of toxicity of Cry1E, as well as of G27, is caused by the
absence of an appropriate domain II functioning in binding. The
complementary hybrid F26, which is Cry1C with its domain III replaced
with that of Cry1E, is as toxic as Cry1C. Likewise, replacement of
domain III of Cry1Ab by that of Cry1C (H04) does not alter toxicity.
These results suggest that given functional domains I and II, domains
III of Cry1C, Cry1E, and Cry1Ab are interchangeable.
Heterologous competition analyses consist of measuring the binding of a
labeled molecule at increasing concentrations of other nonlabeled
molecules and may be used to determine if two different molecules bind
to the same receptor. In the diamondback moth, Cry1Ab and Cry1C have
been shown to bind to different receptors, since increasing
concentrations of the former do not affect binding of labeled Cry1C
(9) and vice versa (14). Also, because Cry1E lacks receptors in this insect (24), no competition with
Cry1C is expected. Heterologous competition analyses with labeled Cry1C and hybrid toxins with domain III replacements between Cry1C and either
Cry1E or Cry1Ab showed that binding to brush border membrane vesicles
from the diamondback moth was not affected by domain III replacement.
Hybrid toxins with domain III from Cry1C (G27 and H04) did not compete
for binding with Cry1C, whereas the hybrid toxin with domain II (and I)
from Cry1C (F26) did compete (Fig. 2). The dissociation constant and
binding site concentration for Cry1C and F26 were essentially
identical, and their values did not differ significantly from those
obtained for Cry1C in previous studies: Kd = 6.5 ± 0.8 nM and Rt = 10.8 ± 3.3 pmol/mg
of vesicle protein (9), Kd = 8.8 ± 0.3 nM and Rt = 3.2 ± 0.0 pmol/mg of vesicle protein (28), and Kd = 8.9 ± 0.1 nM and Rt = 9.2 ± 1.0 pmol/mg of
vesicle protein (37). Moreover, in a study on a
Dipel-resistant diamondback moth colony from Hawaii, it was shown that
this colony was resistant to Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, and H04 but not to Cry1C
(29). The resistance to Cry1A toxins was shown to be
correlated with reduced binding of Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac (1,
30). These and the results presented here indicate that the
specificity of binding in the diamondback moth is mediated by domain II
(and/or I) but not by domain III.
Therefore, in contrast to findings in other insects for the toxins and
hybrids used in this study, toxin specificity as well as specificity of
binding to membrane vesicles in the diamondback moth is mediated by
domain II (and/or I), with the domain III pairs 1C-1E and 1C-1Ab being
mutually interchangeable. If domain III plays a role at all in binding
or toxicity in the diamondback moth, it is less specific than in other cases.
| |
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
We thank Petra Bakker for preparing and purifying the crystal proteins.
This work was supported by a grant from the European Union under the
ECLAIR program (project no. AGRE-0003) and a grant from the Spanish
Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (project no.
AGR91-0238-CE).
| |
FOOTNOTES |
*
Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of
Genetics, Universitat de València, Av. Dr. Moliner 50, 46100-Burjassot (València), Spain. Phone: 34-96-386-4506. Fax:
34-96-398-3029. E-mail: Juan.Ferre{at}uv.es.
| |
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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 1999, p. 1900-1903, Vol. 65, No. 5
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Copyright © 1999, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.
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Abstract
Introduction
