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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 2002, p. 2101-2105, Vol. 68, No. 5
0099-2240/02/$04.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AEM.68.5.2101-2105.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

MINIREVIEW

Production of Fumonisin Analogs by Fusarium Species

John P. Rheeder,* Walter F. O. Marasas, and Hester F. Vismer

PROMEC Unit, Medical Research Council, 7505 Tygerberg, South Africa


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INTRODUCTION
 
The fumonisins, a family of food-borne carcinogenic mycotoxins, were first isolated in 1988 (21) from cultures of Fusarium verticillioides (Sacc.) Nirenberg (previously known as Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon). During the same year, the structures of the fumonisins were elucidated (6) and fumonisin B1 was shown to cause equine leukoencephalomalacia (34). There have been numerous publications dealing with this group of novel, carcinogenic mycotoxins, and comprehensive reviews of different aspects of the fumonisins are available (20, 22, 23, 24, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 46, 52, 55, 60, 61, 66). Due to the widespread occurrence of the fumonisins in maize, a dietary staple in many countries, the carcinogenic risk of fumonisins to humans was evaluated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 1993, and the toxins produced by F. moniliforme were evaluated as "Group 2B carcinogens," i.e., probably carcinogenic to humans (24). This review focuses on the Fusarium species that produce fumonisins and the fumonisin analogs produced by each of these species.


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FUMONISIN ANALOGS
 
The 28 fumonisin analogs that have been characterized since 1988 can be separated into four main groups, identified as the fumonisin A, B, C, and P series (Fig. 1 and Table 1). The fumonisin B (FB) analogs, comprising toxicologically important FB1, FB2, and FB3, are the most abundant naturally occurring fumonisins, with FB1 predominating and usually being found at the highest levels (36). FB1 typically accounts for 70 to 80% of the total fumonisins produced, while FB2 usually makes up 15 to 25% and FB3 usually makes up from 3 to 8% when cultured on corn or rice or in liquid medium (7, 39, 40). Apart from the FB series, some of the other analogs may occur in naturally contaminated maize at relatively low levels (<5% of the total fumonisins present) (48). These lesser-known fumonisin analogs are not detected with most analytical techniques due to the derivatization process, but they can be detected with the use of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (49).



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  		FIG. 1. Basic structure of fumonisin (see Table 1 for a list of known fumonisin analogs and the positions of R side chains).


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  		TABLE 1. Fumonisin analogs


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FUMONISIN PRODUCERS
 
Fifteen Fusarium species have been reported to produce fumonisins (Table 2). Eight of these are in the Section Liseola, i.e., F. verticillioides, mating population A (MP-A) in the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex (6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 57, 58, 62, 68, 70); F. sacchari (Butler) W. Gams MP-B (29); F. fujikuroi Nirenberg MP-C (16); F. proliferatum (Matsushima) Nirenberg MP-D (4, 10, 14, 16, 25, 29, 32, 47, 49, 51, 53, 62, 70, 72); F. subglutinans (Wollenw. et Reinking) Nelson, Toussoun, et Marasas MP-E (29); F. subglutinans sensu lato, isolated from teosinte seed, representing a potentially new biological species within the G. fujikuroi species complex (19); F. thapsinum Klittich, Leslie, Nelson, et Marasas MP-F (26, 30, 45); F. anthophilum (A. Braun) Wollenw. (12, 51); and F. globosum Rheeder, Marasas, et Nelson (69). Another five species fall within the proposed Section Dlaminia (27) (closely related to Section Liseola), i.e., F. nygamai Burgess et Trimboli MP-G (32, 48, 49, 51, 70); F. dlamini Marasas, Nelson, et Toussoun (51); and F. napiforme Marasas, Nelson, et Rabie (51). Trace amounts of fumonisin were detected in culture material of two newly described species, i.e., F. andiyazi Marasas, Rheeder, Lamprecht, Zeller, et Leslie; and F. pseudonygamai Nirenberg et O'Donnell (J. F. Leslie, unpublished data). The remaining two fumonisin-producing Fusarium species are one species in Section Elegans, i.e., F. oxysporum Schlecht. emend. Snyd. et Hans. (2, 64, 65) and one in Section Arthrosporiella, i.e., F. polyphialidicum Marasas, Nelson, Toussoun, et Van Wyk (1). Reports that certain strains of F. oxysporum var. redolens (2) and F. polyphialidicum (1) produce fumonisins need to be confirmed by taxonomic verification of the strains in question as well as by verification of the fumonisins produced.


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  		TABLE 2. Fumonisin-producing Fusarium species, analogs produced, and the maximum yields of FB1, FB2, and FB3 reported for each species

The only fungus that does not belong to the genus Fusarium that has been reported to produce fumonisins (FB1, FB2, and FB3) in culture is Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler f. sp. lycopersici (3, 13, 44).

The relative production of FB1, FB2, and FB3 by different Fusarium species is briefly summarized in Table 2. The most important producers of fumonisins are F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum because of their overall high levels of production, wide geographical distribution, frequent occurrence on maize, and association with known animal mycotoxicoses (62, 63). With the exception of F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum, less than 50% of isolates of other fumonisin-producing Fusarium species may produce fumonisins at various levels (51).


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NON-FUMONISIN PRODUCERS
 
Several Fusarium species have been reported as non-fumonisin producers, but in most cases only a few isolates per species have been analyzed. These Fusarium species are F. acuminatum Ell. et Ev. (25, 70); F. annulatum Bugnicourt (51); F. avenaceum (Fr.) Sacc. (70); F. beomiforme Nelson, Toussoun, et Burgess (51); F. camptoceras (Wollenw. et Reinking) emend. Marasas et Logrieco (25, 70); F. circinatum Nirenberg et O'Donnell (= F. subglutinans f. sp. pini) MP-H (19); F. compactum (Wollenw.) Gordon (70); F. concolor Reinking (56); F. crookwellense Burgess, Nelson, et Toussoun (= F. cerealis [Cooke] Sacc.) (56); F. culmorum (W. G. Smith) Sacc. (56); F. decemcellulare Brick (70); F. dimerum Penzig (25); F. equiseti (Corda) Sacc. (25, 70); F. graminearum Schwabe (teleomorph: G. zeae [Schwabe] Petch) (56, 70); F. lateritium Nees (70); F. longipes Wollenw. et Reinking (70); F. poae (Peck) Wollenw. (70); F. pseudograminearum O'Donnell et Aoki (= F. graminearum Group 1) (56, 70); F. reticulatum Mont. (70); F. sambucinum Fuckel (56, 70); F. scirpi Lambotte et Fautr. (70); F. semitectum Berk. et Rav. (= F. pallidoroseum [Cooke] Sacc.) (25, 56, 70); F. solani (Mart.) Appel et Wollenw. emend. Snyder et Hansen (25, 70); F. sporotrichioides Sherb. (70); F. succisae (Schröter) Sacc. (51); and F. tricinctum (Corda) Sacc. (70).


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FUMONISIN PRODUCTION BY F. VERTICILLIOIDES
 
Most isolates of F. verticillioides have the ability to produce fumonisins. Some of the highest FB1 levels produced by this species have been reported with isolates from South Africa (17,900 mg kg-1) (5), China (10,200 mg kg-1) (72), and Argentina (8,160 mg kg-1) (67). Although a few F. verticillioides isolates from Nepal (50) do not produce any fumonisin, other isolates from the same region have been reported to produce FB1 at levels of up to 6,400 mg kg-1 (16, 50). Several isolates of this species from Southeast Asia (42) produce fumonisins at low levels, with a maximum of 147 mg kg-1, whereas some isolates from Australia (50) produced only trace quantities of FB1.

F. verticillioides strain MRC 826 (= FRC M-1325, accession number at the Fusarium Research Center, Pennsylvania State University, Pa.), which was isolated in 1975 from maize in an area of high incidence of human esophageal cancer in the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (33), and from which the fumonisins were first isolated and characterized (21), has been used to produce fumonisins in numerous studies all over the world. "It has been the most thoroughly studied strain of F. moniliforme and consequently much of our knowledge of F. moniliforme toxicity is attributable to experiments using MRC 826 as a model" (71).

The highest yield of FB1 (17,900 mg kg-1) by F. verticillioides was obtained from whole maize kernels as culture material, with F. verticillioides MRC 826 as inoculum, incubated at 20°C in the dark for 13 weeks (5). The highest yield of FB1 that has been reported for a Fusarium species was obtained with a maize isolate of F. proliferatum (no accession number given) from Spain cultured on whole maize (31,000 mg kg-1) (10). This isolate also produced the highest published yield of FB2 (17,000 mg kg-1). F. proliferatum M-6284, cultured on whole yellow maize, produced the highest reported yield of FB3 (5,700 mg kg-1) (53).


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CONCLUSION
 
Numerous studies have provided valuable data on the toxicology of purified fumonisins of the FB series, yet the search continues for other toxic fumonisin analogs which may also pose a health risk to humans and animals. Maize and maize-based products have been the main focus of fumonisin research due to the widespread contamination of this food source by relatively high levels of FB1, FB2, and FB3. As additional and new Fusarium species with various fumonisin-producing capabilities are described from other agriculturally important crops, such as sorghum (38) and millet (54), it becomes necessary to determine whether fumonisins also occur in these crops and, if so, to determine which analogs occur and at what levels.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank past and present staff members of the PROMEC Unit and our South African and international collaborators.

We thank the Medical Research Council of South Africa for their continued financial support.


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FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Medical Research Council, PROMEC Unit, P.O. Box 19070, 7505 Tygerberg, South Africa. Phone: 27-21-938-0299. Fax: 27-21-938-0260. E-mail address: john.rheeder{at}mrc.ac.za. Back


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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 2002, p. 2101-2105, Vol. 68, No. 5
0099-2240/02/$04.00+0     DOI: 10.1128/AEM.68.5.2101-2105.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



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