AEM
Home Help [Feedback] [For Subscribers] [Archive] [Search] [Contents]
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, September 2005, p. 5659-5662, Vol. 71, No. 9
0099-2240/05/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5659-5662.2005
Copyright © 2005, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

SHORT REPORT

Method for Isolation of Bacteroides Bacteriophage Host Strains Suitable for Tracking Sources of Fecal Pollution in Water

Andrey Payan,1 James Ebdon,2 Huw Taylor,2 Christophe Gantzer,3 Jakob Ottoson,4 Georgos T. Papageorgiou,5 Anicet R. Blanch,1 Francisco Lucena,1 Juan Jofre,1* and Maite Muniesa1

Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain,1 Environment & Public Health Research Unit, School of the Environment, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road, Brighton BN2 4GJ, United Kingdom,2 Laboratoire de Chimie Physique et Microbiologie pour l'Environnement, UMR 7564, CNRS Université Henri Poincaré Nancy I, Faculté de Pharmacie, 5 rue Albert Lebrun, 54000 Nancy, France,3 Microbiology and Tumor Biology Center, Karolinska Institute, Box 280, S-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden,4 State General Laboratory, Microbiological Section, Kimonos 44, 1451 Nicosia, Cyprus5

Received 9 November 2004/ Accepted 23 March 2005


   ABSTRACT
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Isolation of new hosts...
 Identification of the isolates.
 Evaluation of strain ga-17...
 References
 
Bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides are potentially a good tool for fecal source tracking, but different Bacteroides host strains are needed for different geographic areas. A feasible method for isolating Bacteroides host strains for phages present in human fecal material is described. Useful strains were identified for application in Spain and the United Kingdom. One strain, GA-17, identified as Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, was tested in several locations in Europe with excellent performance in Southern Europe.


   INTRODUCTION
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Isolation of new hosts...
 Identification of the isolates.
 Evaluation of strain ga-17...
 References
 
Microbial source tracking methods are designed to enable researchers to uncover the sources of fecal pollution in a water body (19). Bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides are potential tools for microbial source tracking (4, 13, 22, 24, 26, 29). However, it is well documented that Bacteroides host strains vary in their ability to discriminate between phages of different sources but also that phage detection by a given host strain varies geographically. Thus, Bacteroides fragilis strain HSP40 detects good numbers of phages in different areas of the Mediterranean region (4, 9, 10, 28, 29, 30) and in South Africa (12), but it fails to detect significant numbers of phages in Northern Europe (22) and the United States (15). In contrast, other strains, such as RYC 2056, detect similar numbers of phages in different geographical areas but do not discriminate between the sources of fecal pollution (5, 7, 18, 22). Strains tested in the United States to date appear to behave like RYC 2056 (15).

Limitations of existing source tracking methods (19, 24, 25, 26, 27), combined with the good source tracking performance of strain HSP40 in certain geographical areas (4, 9, 12, 28, 30), along with increasing information about the specificity between the animal host and the bacteria of the Bacteroides group (11, 32) and the narrow host ranges reported for phages infecting Bacteroides (6, 8, 16, 22, 30), prompted our search for new Bacteroides host strains.

We describe here a rapid method for isolating and further testing Bacteroides host strains potentially useful for source tracking.


   Isolation of new hosts for phages infecting Bacteroides.
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Isolation of new hosts...
Identification of the isolates.
 Evaluation of strain ga-17...
 References
 
Four trials for isolation of Bacteroides strains from raw municipal sewage from Spain (two trials), Colombia (one trial), and the United Kingdom (one trial) were carried out by two independent operators.

Decimal dilutions of sewage samples were plated onto Bacteroides bile esculine agar (17) and incubated at 36°C (±2°C) for 44 (±4) h in anaerobic jars. Anaerobiosis was achieved with commercial anaerobic generators (Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany). Black colonies with a black or dark halo (17) were picked and plated for pure culture on Bacteroides bile esculine agar plates incubated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions (anaerobic jars). Gram staining of isolates growing only under anaerobic conditions was carried out. Gram-negative obligate anaerobic rods isolated at this stage (level 1 isolates) (Table 1) were further processed. They were grown in BPRM broth at 36°C (±2°C) for 18 (±2) h in anaerobic conditions. Bacteroides phage recovery medium (BPRM) is the medium used for bacteriophage enumeration. Isolates showing good growth after overnight incubation were used as host strains for the enumeration of phages present in reference phage suspensions.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1. Isolates obtained in four independent trials using municipal wastewater from Spain, Colombia, and the United Kingdom

 
Phages infecting all isolates as well as Bacteroides fragilis strain RYC 2056 (ATCC 700786) were enumerated by the double-agar-layer method on BPRM agar and incubated in anaerobic jars according to the ISO standard method (2, 3). Reference suspensions of phages naturally occurring in fecally contaminated samples stored in multiple vials, with high intra- and intervial homogeneity and stability, containing between 100 and 300 PFU on B. fragilis RYC 2056 were used to determine the isolates' efficiency for detecting phages. These suspensions were prepared as previously described (20). These suspensions were adjusted with phages infecting B. fragilis RYC 2056 (ATCC 700786), since fairly constant numbers are found in municipal raw sewage and in animal fecal wastes (5, 7, 18, 22). These reference suspensions were prepared in advance so that level 1 isolates could be rapidly and accurately tested for the presence of phages.

Five hundred microliters of a reference suspension of phages was tested on monolayers of the level 1 isolates. Isolates giving plaque counts similar to or higher than those of RYC 2056 were processed for further analysis (level 2 isolates). The next step was to test phage reference suspensions obtained as described above from animal fecal sources (slaughterhouses and farms of cattle, pigs, and poultry wastes) on these level 2 isolates. Only isolates giving zero or very low counts with reference samples of animal origin were selected as potential new hosts for fecal source tracking (level 3 strains). Results regarding the number of colonies screened in each trial, successful isolations, and the names of the isolated strains are shown in Table 1.

Discriminatory capability was assessed by using the strains as host strains to test reference bacteriophage suspensions prepared from municipal wastewaters from Spain and the United Kingdom and with reference bacteriophage suspensions from different animal sources (Table 2). The five isolates detected numbers of bacteriophages in municipal wastewater from Spain similar to or higher than those detected by strain RYC 2056. The numbers of phages detected in municipal wastewater from the United Kingdom by strains GA-17 and GB-124 were about five times lower than values detected using strain RYC 2056, and the numbers detected by strain HB-13 were about 50 times lower than values given by strain RYC 2056. There are therefore geographical differences. Again the five strains detected either zero or very low numbers of phages in fecal material of animal origin. With regard to the plaques observed with the five host strains, all demonstrated clear plaques with the exception of strain GA-17, which gave a percentage of turbid plaques. However, in most samples tested during this phase, the presence of turbid plaques did not impair the interpretation of results. Strains GA-17, HB-13, and GB-124 emerged as the most promising strains for future source tracking studies. Taking into consideration the results of this phase, strain GA-17 was tested in different geographical locations.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2. Discriminatory ability of the newly isolated host strains to detect phages present in reference suspensions of different fecal origins

 
At least one host strain was isolated per attempt. Therefore, the technique is feasible for the isolation of potential hosts of Bacteroides for source tracking purposes, allowing up to 500 colonies to be analyzed. It is also possible to isolate strains useful in different geographic areas. The total cost associated with each attempt to isolate new strains did not exceed 1,000 euros inclusive of consumables and labor (approximately 1 month). The technique has low development costs in comparison with emerging library-dependent source tracking techniques (19).


   Identification of the isolates.
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Isolation of new hosts...
 Identification of the isolates.
Evaluation of strain ga-17...
 References
 
The five selected strains underwent presumptive identification by amplification and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. As a template for the PCR, one microliter of bacterial lysate obtained after treatment at 95°C for 15 min as described elsewhere (14) was used. PCR amplification of the 16S rRNA gene was performed according to standard procedures using the Amplitaq DNA polymerase kit (Perkin-Elmer, Applied Biosystems). Primers used were Upper Bact16S (GCTACCTTCTTACGACTT) and Lower Bact16S (GAGTTTGATCCTGGCTC) (31) with an annealing temperature of 42°C. A 5-µl volume of each PCR product was analyzed by agarose (1%) gel electrophoresis, and bands were visualized by staining with ethidium bromide. The 1,488-kb PCR products obtained were used directly for sequencing. Sequencing was performed with the ABI PRISM BigDye 3.1 terminator cycle sequencing ready reaction kit in an ABI PRISM 3700 DNA analyzer (both from Perkin-Elmer; Applied Biosystems, Barcelona, Spain) according to the manufacturer's instructions. All sequences were performed in duplicate. Searches for homologous DNA sequences in the EMBL and GenBank database libraries were performed with the BLAST tool (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).

Results of the genotypic characterization are summarized in Table 3. Three of the strains (GA-17, H16-10, and HB-13) showed high homology with Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, one with Bacteroides fragilis (H1-8), and one with Bacteroides ovatus (GB-124). These results were in accordance with the results of phenotypical characterization using the commercial kit API 20A (BioMérieux, Marcy l'Etoile, France).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 3. Results of 16s RNA characterization of the five isolates

 

   Evaluation of strain GA-17 in different European countries.
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Isolation of new hosts...
 Identification of the isolates.
 Evaluation of strain ga-17...
References
 
Samples from municipal and hospital wastewaters from Cyprus, France, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom and samples with fecal contamination of animal origin (wastewaters from slaughterhouses or liquid slurries of cattle, pig, and poultry) were used to determine the discriminatory ability of one of the isolated strains (GA-17) in different geographical areas. Levels of fecal contamination in the samples were determined by enumerating fecal coliforms according to standard methods (1).

Results are shown in Table 4. The numbers of phages detected by strain GA-17 in municipal or hospital wastewaters were similar to or slightly higher than the number detected by strain RYC 2056, with average values ranging from 3.7 x 103 PFU per 100 ml in the United Kingdom to 1.1 x 105 PFU per 100 ml in Spain. These numbers have some numerical relationship with the density of fecal coliforms found in the wastewater samples tested. However, in samples from the United Kingdom, high percentages (>90%) of turbid plaques were reported, which were hardly visible to the untrained eye. The results reported herein include the turbid plaques detected by an experienced operator. This aside, the plaques obtained in samples from other locations were mostly clear and were counted by less-experienced operators. Therefore, we can conclude that as a result of geographical differences, it will be necessary to determine suitable host strains for use within specific regions. In contrast, phage counts in samples of animal origin were either zero or very low in all locations. Thus, the results with regard to strain GA-17 are extremely promising for the future of source tracking in Southern Europe and to a lesser extent in Sweden. In contrast, data for the United Kingdom were not as promising, and strains such as GA-17 or others that may be isolated with the method described here will have to be used.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 4. Values of bacteriophages of Bacteroides and fecal coliforms present in wastewaters with human fecal pollution and fecal material of animal origin from different European countries

 
In conclusion, we think that the detection and enumeration of phages infecting Bacteroides is an efficient tool to add to the "toolbox" needed for source tracking and that the method described here makes feasible the isolation of Bacteroides host strains for both different geographical areas and different fecal sources.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Ruth Serra-Moreno, Cristina Valdivieso, and Susana Calle for their technical assistance.

This study was supported by the Generalitat de Catalunya (2001SGR00099), the "Centre de Referència en Biotecnologia (CeRBa)," European Project EVK1-2000-22080, and research project CGL2004-04702-C02-01 from the Spanish government. M. Muniesa is a researcher of the "Ramon y Cajal" program of the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science.


   FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Microbiology, University of Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain. Phone: 34 934021487. Fax: 34 93 4039047. E-mail: jjofre{at}ub.edu. Back


   REFERENCES
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Isolation of new hosts...
 Identification of the isolates.
 Evaluation of strain ga-17...
 References
 

  1. Anonymous. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
  2. Anonymous. 2001. ISO 10705-4. Water quality. Detection and enumeration of bacteriophages, part 2: enumeration of bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides fragilis. International Organisation for Standardisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
  3. Araujo, R., M. Muniesa, X. Méndez, A. Puig, N. Queralt, F. Lucena, and J. Jofre. 2001. Optimisation and standardisation of a method for detecting and enumerating bacteriophages infecting Bacteroides fragilis. J. Virol. Methods 93:127-136.[CrossRef][Medline]
  4. Armon, R. 1993. Bacteriophage monitoring in drinking water: do they fulfill the index or indicator function. Wat. Sci. Technol. 27:463-467.
  5. Blanch, A. R., L. Belanche-Muñoz, X. Bonjoch, J. Ebdon, C. Gantzer, F. Lucena, J. Ottoson, C. Kourtis, A. Iversen, I. Kühn, L. Moce, M. Muniesa, J. Schwartzbrod, S. Skraber, G. Papageorgiou, H. D. Taylor, J. Wallis, and J. Jofre. 2004. Tracking the origin of faecal pollution in surface water. An ongoing project within the European Union Research Programme. J. Wat. Health 2:249-260
  6. Booth, S. J., R. L. Van Tassell, J. L. Johnson, and T. D. Wilkins. 1979. Bacteriophages of Bacteroides. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1:325-334.[Medline]
  7. Contreras-Coll, N., F. Lucena, K. Mooijman, A. Havelaar, V. Pierzo, M. Boqué, A. Gawler, C. Höller, M. Lambiri, G. Mirolo, B. Moreno, M. Niemi, R. Sommer, B. Valentin, A. Wiedenmann, V. Young, and J. Jofre. 2002. Occurrence and levels of indicator bacteriophages in bathing waters through Europe. Wat. Res. 36:4963-4974.[CrossRef]
  8. Cooper, S. W., E. G. Szymczak, N. V. Jacobus, and F. P. Tally. 1984. Differentiation of Bacteroides ovatus and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron by means of bacteriophages. J. Clin. Microbiol. 20:1122-1125.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Cornax, R., M. A. Moriñigo, I. G. Paez, M. A. Muñoz, and J. J. Borrego. 1990. Application of direct plaque assay for detection and enumeration of bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis from contaminated-water samples. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:3170-3173.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  10. Duran, A. E., M. Muniesa, X. Mendez, F. Valero, F. Lucena, and J. Jofre. 2002. Removal and inactivation of indicator bacteriophages in fresh waters. J. Appl. Microbiol. 92:338-347.[CrossRef][Medline]
  11. Field, K. G., A. E. Bernhard, and T. J. Brodeur. 2003. Molecular approaches to microbiological monitoring: fecal source detection. Environ. Monit. Assess. 81:313-326.[CrossRef][Medline]
  12. Grabow, W. O. K., C. S. Holtzhausen, and J. C. de Villiers. 1993. Research on bacteriophages as indicators of water quality. WRC report no. 321/1/93. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, South Africa.
  13. Grabow, W. O. K., T. E. Neubrech, C. S. Holtzhausen, and J. Jofre. 1995. Bacteroides fragilis and Escherichia coli bacteriophages: excretion by humans and animals. Wat. Sci. Technol. 31:223-230.
  14. Hofmann, M. A., and D. A. Brian. 1991. Sequencing PCR DNA amplified directly from a bacterial colony. BioTechniques 11:30-31.[Medline]
  15. Kator, H., and M. Rhodes. 1992. Evaluation of Bacteroides fragilis bacteriophage, a candidate human-specific indicator of fecal contamination for shellfish-growing waters. Final Report. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Va.
  16. Keller, R., and N. Traub. 1974. The characterization of a Bacteroides fragilis bacteriophage recovered from animal sera: observations on the nature of Bacteroides bacteriophage carrier culture. J. Gen. Microbiol. 24:179-189.
  17. Livingston, S. J. 1978. New medium for selection and presumptive identification of the Bacteroides fragilis group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 7:448-453.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  18. Lucena, F., X. Méndez, A. Morón, E. Calderón, C. Campos, A. Guerrero, M. Cárdenas, C. Gantzer, L. Schwartzbrod, S. Skraber, and J. Jofre. 2003. Occurrence and densities of bacteriophages proposed as indicators and bacterial indicators in river waters from Europe and South America. J. Appl. Microbiol. 94:808-815.[CrossRef][Medline]
  19. Malakoff, D. 2002. Microbiologists in the trail of polluting bacteria. Science 295:2352-2353.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Mendez, J., J. Jofre, F. Lucena, N. Contreras, K. Mooijman, and R. Araujo. 2002. Conservation of phage reference materials and water samples containing bacteriophages of enteric bacteria. J. Virol. Methods 106:215-224.[CrossRef][Medline]
  21. Paster, B. J., F. E. Dewhirst, I. Olsen, and G. J. Fraser. 1994. Phylogeny of Bacteroides, Prevotella, and Porphyromonas spp. and related bacteria. J. Bacteriol. 176:725-732.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Puig, A., N. Queralt, J. Jofre, and R. Araujo. 1999. Diversity of Bacteroides fragilis strains in their capacity to recover phages from human and animal wastes and from fecally polluted wastewater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:1172-1176.
  23. Ruimy, R., I. Podglajen, J. Breuil, R. Christen, and E. Collatz. 1996. A recent fixation of cfiA genes in a monophyletic cluster of Bacteroides fragilis is correlated with the presence of multiple insertion elements. J. Bacteriol. 178:1914-1918.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Scott, T. M., J. B. Rose, T. M. Jenkins, S. R. Farrah, and J. Lukasik. 2002. Microbial source tracking: current methodology and future directions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5796-5803.[Free Full Text]
  25. Simpson, J. M., J. W. Santo Domingo, and D. J. Reasoner. 2002. Microbial source tracking: state of the science. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:5279-5288.[Medline]
  26. Sinton, L. W., R. K. Finlay, and D. J. Hannah. 1998. Distinguishing human from animal contamination in water: a review. N. Z. J. Mar. Freshwat. Res. 32:323-348.
  27. Stewart, J. R., R. D. Ellender, J. A. Gooch, S. Jiang, S. P. Myoda, and S. B. Weisberg. 2003. Recommendations for microbial source tracking: lessons from a methods comparison study. J. Wat. Health 1:225-231.
  28. Sun, Z. P., Y. Levi, L. Kiene, N. Dumoutier, and F. Lucena. 1997. Quantification of bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis in environmental water samples of Seine River. Wat. Air Soil Pollut. 96:175-183.[CrossRef]
  29. Tartera, C., F. Lucena, and J. Jofre. 1989. Human origin of Bacteroides fragilis bacteriophages present in the environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:2696-2701.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  30. Tartera, C., and J. Jofre. 1987. Bacteriophages active against Bacteroides fragilis in sewage-polluted waters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:1632-1637.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Weisburg, W. G., S. M. Barns, D. A. Pelletier, and D. J. Lane. 1991. 16S ribosomal DNA amplification for phylogenetic study. J. Bacteriol. 173:697-703.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Xu, J., M. K. Bjursell, J. Himrod, S. Deng, L. K. Carmichael, H. C. Chiang, L. V. Hooper, and J. I. Gordon. 2003. A genomic view of the human-Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron symbiosis. Science 299:2074-2076.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Applied and Environmental Microbiology, September 2005, p. 5659-5662, Vol. 71, No. 9
0099-2240/05/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/AEM.71.9.5659-5662.2005
Copyright © 2005, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



This article has been cited by other articles:


This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Payan, A.
Right arrow Articles by Muniesa, M.

Home Help [Feedback] [For Subscribers] [Archive] [Search] [Contents]
J. Bacteriol. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. Eukaryot. Cell All ASM Journals