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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 2008, p. 3069-3075, Vol. 74, No. 10
0099-2240/08/$08.00+0 doi:10.1128/AEM.02933-07
Copyright © 2008, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Role of Intestinal Microbiota in Transformation of Bismuth and Other Metals and Metalloids into Volatile Methyl and Hydride Derivatives in Humans and Mice
Klaus Michalke,1*
Annette Schmidt,1
Britta Huber,1
Jörg Meyer,1
Margareta Sulkowski,2
Alfred V. Hirner,2
Jens Boertz,2
Frank Mosel,3
Philip Dammann,4
Gero Hilken,4
Hans J. Hedrich,5
Martina Dorsch,5
Albert W. Rettenmeier,3 and
Reinhard Hensel1
Department of Microbiology I, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany,1 Institute of Environmental and Analytical Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany,2 Institute of Hygiene and Occupational Medicine, University Hospital Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45122 Essen, Germany,3 Central Animal Laboratory, University Hospital, Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45122 Essen, Germany,4 Central Animal Laboratory, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany5
Received 29 December 2007/ Accepted 19 March 2008
The present study shows that feces samples of 14 human volunteers and isolated gut segments of mice (small intestine, cecum, and large intestine) are able to transform metals and metalloids into volatile derivatives ex situ during anaerobic incubation at 37°C and neutral pH. Human feces and the gut of mice exhibit highly productive mechanisms for the formation of the toxic volatile derivative trimethylbismuth [(CH3)3Bi] at rather low concentrations of bismuth (0.2 to 1 µmol kg–1 [dry weight]). An increase of bismuth up to 2 to 14 mmol kg–1 (dry weight) upon a single (human volunteers) or continuous (mouse study) administration of colloidal bismuth subcitrate resulted in an average increase of the derivatization rate from approximately 4 pmol h–1 kg–1 (dry weight) to 2,100 pmol h–1 kg–1 (dry weight) in human feces samples and from approximately 5 pmol h–1 kg–1 (dry weight) to 120 pmol h–1 kg–1 (dry weight) in mouse gut samples, respectively. The upshift of the bismuth content also led to an increase of derivatives of other elements (such as arsenic, antimony, and lead in human feces or tellurium and lead in the murine large intestine). The assumption that the gut microbiota plays a dominant role for these transformation processes, as indicated by the production of volatile derivatives of various elements in feces samples, is supported by the observation that the gut segments of germfree mice are unable to transform administered bismuth to (CH3)3Bi.
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of Microbiology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitaetsstr. 5, 45117 Essen, Germany. Phone: 49 201 183-4707. Fax: 49 201 183-3990. E-mail: klaus.michalke{at}uni-due.de
Published ahead of print on 31 March 2008.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, May 2008, p. 3069-3075, Vol. 74, No. 10
0099-2240/08/$08.00+0 doi:10.1128/AEM.02933-07
Copyright © 2008, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
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