ABSTRACT
A chemostat coculture of the sulfate-reducing bacteriumDesulfovibrio oxyclinae together with a facultative aerobe heterotroph tentatively identified as Marinobacter sp. strain MB was grown under anaerobic conditions and then exposed to a stepwise-increasing oxygen influx (0 to 20% O2 in the incoming gas phase). The coculture consumed oxygen efficiently, and no residual oxygen was detected with an oxygen supply of up to 5%. Sulfate reduction persisted at all levels of oxygen input, even at the maximal level, when residual oxygen in the growth vessel was 87 μM. The portion of D. oxyclinae cells in the coculture decreased gradually from 92% under anaerobic conditions to 27% under aeration. Both absolute cell numbers and viable cell counts of the organism were the same as or even higher than those observed in the absence of oxygen input. The patterns of consumption of electron donors and acceptors suggest that aerobic incomplete oxidation of lactate to acetate is performed by D. oxyclinae under high oxygen input. Both organisms were isolated from the same oxic zone of a cyanobacterial mat where they have to adapt to daily shifts from oxic to anoxic conditions. This type of syntrophic association may occur in natural habitats, enabling sulfate-reducing bacteria to cope with periodic exposure to oxygen.
The photic zone of cyanobacterial mats is characterized by extreme shifts in oxygen and sulfide concentrations from oxygen supersaturation during the light period to anoxic, sulfide-enriched conditions in the dark (24). These changes are a challenge for the organisms living in such a habitat. Daily exposure to high oxygen concentrations may be deleterious to obligately anaerobic organisms, such as sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) (13, 18, 24). High numbers of SRB were found in the oxic zone of a cyanobacterial mat from the Solar Lake (Sinai) throughout the diurnal cycle (10, 21, 22, 25, 27), indicating that these organisms can deal with exposure to elevated oxygen concentrations of even up to 1.5 mM. Moreover, high rates of sulfate reduction were found in the oxic layers of these microbial mats (4, 5, 9), as well as in microbial mats from Baja California, Mexico (2).
None of the SRB isolated so far can either grow aerobically or reduce sulfate under high concentrations of oxygen. Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough was found to be capable of slow linear aerobic growth under very low concentrations of oxygen. Oxygen concentrations of only 0.07% were toxic to this organism (14). The oxygen-tolerant SRB Desulfovibrio oxyclinae isolated in our laboratory (16) was demonstrated to persist in continuous culture gassed with 1% O2, although flocculation occurred after exposure to oxygen (25).
It was previously demonstrated that SRB in the upper layer of cyanobacterial mats can form close associations with oxygen-scavenging bacteria (12, 26). Such consortia may be responsible, at least in part, for the observed in situ sulfate-reducing activity under aerobic conditions.
In this report, we present the effects of exposure to oxygen on the continuous culture of D. oxyclinae from the upper layer of the Solar Lake cyanobacterial mat in defined coculture with the facultatively aerobic heterotroph Marinobacter sp. strain MB, isolated from the same niche.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Growth medium.One liter of the synthetic growth medium was used in all continuous culture experiments and contained the following: NaCl, 50.0 g; KCl, 1.0 g; MgCl2 · 6H2O, 2.5 g; K2HPO4, 0.5 g; NH4Cl, 1.0 g; CaCl2 · 2H2O, 0.08 g; resazurine, 0.01 g; vitamin solution, 1 ml; vitamin B12 solution, 1 ml; thiamine solution, 1 ml; ascorbate-thioglycolate reducing solution, 10 ml (32); and SL7 mineral solution, 1 ml (1). Sodium sulfate and carbon sources were added as sterile stock solutions to the final concentrations specified below.
Bacterial strains. D. oxyclinae strain P1B (DSM 11498) was isolated previously in our laboratory from the oxic zone of the Solar Lake mats (16). Marinobacter sp. strain MB was obtained from the same environment (M. V. Baev et al., unpublished data). Comparison of sequences of 16S rDNA genes (positions 1 to 1350) demonstrated its 99% sequence similarity with the type strain Marinobacter hydrocarbonoclasticus (11). Unlike the type strain, Marinobacter sp. strain MB did not require NaCl for growth.
Continuous culture experiments.Growth experiments were carried out in a 0.45-liter laboratory fermentor (Bioflo; New Brunswick Scientific, Edison, N.J.) equipped with a pH-controlling and oxygen-monitoring device (B. Braun, Melsungen, Germany). pH was maintained at 7.4 ± 0.2 by titration with 1 N HCl and 1 N NaOH. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the growth vessel was monitored using a polarimetric oxygen electrode (Ingold, Urdorf, Switzerland) calibrated in percent air saturation. Oxygen concentration at 100% air saturation in the chemostat was found to be 166 μM. The growth medium contained 10 mM Na2SO4 and 15.5 mM sodium lactate. The dilution rate was set at 0.05 h−1, the mixing rate was 200 rpm, and the temperature was maintained at 35°C.
To change the oxygen input to the growth vessel, the following gases were mixed and supplied to the fermentor at a rate of 0.1 liter min−1: oxygen-free nitrogen; 90% N2, 5% O2, plus 5% CO2; and air. During the experiment, the oxygen content in the incoming gas was increased stepwise from zero (nitrogen) to 20% (air). Each continuous culture mode was maintained at least for 5 days, allowing six volume changes of the medium before increasing oxygen input. At the onset of sampling, the chemostat was at steady state, as indicated by the stable cell counts.
To prepare the inoculum for the continuous culture experiment,Marinobacter sp. strain MB was grown aerobically in batch culture overnight on 20 mM acetate. D. oxyclinae was grown anaerobically in sealed bottles on 20 mM lactate and 20 mM Na2SO4 for 2 days. Each culture was harvested by centrifugation, washed with the synthetic medium, and diluted to equal turbidity. The fermentor was then inoculated with equal volumes of cell suspensions of Marinobacter sp. strain MB andD. oxyclinae. The initial overall cell concentration was 1.5 × 108 ml−1.
Enumeration of D. oxyclinae andMarinobacter sp. strain MB in the coculture.Total cell numbers in each sample were determined by microscopic counting of at least 500 cells in a Petroff-Hausser chamber. The number of viable sulfate-reducing cells was determined by the most-probable-number (MPN) method in eight replicate fivefold dilutions on Nunclon 96-well plates (Nunc A/S, Roskilde, Denmark). Defined multipurpose medium with ascorbate-thioglycolate reducing solution (31) was supplemented with 50 mg of FeSO4 · 7H2O per liter; formation of black FeS precipitate indicated sulfide production. The chemostat sample was diluted 10-fold prior to inoculation. The multiwell plates were incubated in an anaerobic hood. The number of aerobic cells was determined by plating on the synthetic growth medium containing 20 mM sodium acetate as the sole carbon source. The petri dishes were incubated aerobically at 35°C.
For direct microscopic counts of D. oxyclinae andMarinobacter sp. strain MB, we used the nalidixic acid method described by Kogure et al. (15). Five-milliliter aliquots of the chemostat samples were diluted fivefold with fresh synthetic growth medium containing 20 μg of nalidixic acid (Sigma) ml−1 and 20 mM sodium acetate and incubated aerobically overnight at 35°C. Actively growing aerobic cells ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB became markedly elongated and readily distinguishable from the D. oxyclinae cells. Nalidixic acid at 20 μg ml−1 was experimentally found not to inhibit cell division of D. oxyclinae under anaerobic growth conditions. Elongated cells and total cells were counted microscopically in a Petroff-Hausser chamber.
Measurement of respiration rates.Respiration rates were determined using a reaction chamber described by Cypionka (6). Prior to the measurement, the samples were aseptically washed with sterile medium without carbon and sulfur sources. The resulting thick cell suspension was incubated under nitrogen for 30 min. Protein concentrations in the chamber were determined after the measurement. To determine the rate of aerobic respiration, 100 μl of oxygen-saturated water containing 139 nmol of O2 was injected in the chamber under excess of lactate, and the rate of oxygen consumption was determined. In the case of Marinobacter sp. strain MB, the cell suspension was bubbled with sterile air overnight prior to measurement of respiration rates in order to exhaust oxygen respiration of endogenic carbon sources.
Calculated rates of oxygen consumption and sulfate reduction in the chemostat.The rate of oxygen consumption in the chemostat was calculated from the oxygen saturation as measured in the sterile growth vessel under known oxygen input, and the residual oxygen concentration was determined by the submerged oxygen electrode. Sulfate consumption was calculated from the difference of sulfate concentrations measured in the medium reservoir and in the growth vessel; the sulfate reduction rate was calculated from sulfate consumption and dilution rates.
Analytical procedures.Protein was determined by the Lowry method (19). Elemental sulfur, which interferes with this reaction, was not found in the samples. Sulfate was determined by the turbidimetric method (12a) as modified by H. Cypionka (personal communication), and sulfide was determined by the methylene blue method (3). Organic acids were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography (29).
DGGE analysis.Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)-PCR was performed after PCR amplification with primers GM5-F (with GC clamp) and 907-R. PCR products were analyzed in a 30 to 70% denaturing gradient gel as described by Muyzer et al. (23).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this paper we report for the first time the growth of an SRB,D. oxyclinae, in a coculture with Marinobactersp. strain MB under exposure to up to 20% O2 in the incoming gas and under residual oxygen concentrations of up to 87 μM. Dissolved oxygen was detected in the growth vessel by a submerged oxygen electrode only when the system was bubbled with gas mixtures containing 10 and 20% oxygen. The growth modes observed for the defined coculture of D. oxyclinae andMarinobacter sp. strain MB can therefore be defined as anaerobic (gassing with N2), microaerophilic (gassing with 1% to 5% O2; no dissolved oxygen detected in the growth vessel, resazurine decolorized), and aerobic (gassing with 10 and 20% O2; residual oxygen detected, resazurine pink). Altogether, the coculture was studied under six different oxygen supply rates (Table 1; Fig.1). Unlike axenic cultures of D. oxyclinae, where gassing with 1% oxygen resulted in flocculation (26), no macroscopic cell aggregates were found in the coculture under any growth mode.
Growth parameters of the D. oxyclinae-Marinobacter sp. mixed culture under various concentrations of oxygen in the incoming gas
Protein concentration (■), dissolved oxygen (DO), percent air saturation (○), total cell counts (shaded bars), and MPN counts of D. oxyclinae (light bars) in a D. oxyclinae-Marinobacter sp. coculture under various oxygen concentrations in the incoming gas. Error bars indicate 95% confidence intervals for MPN and standard deviations for other parameters.
Anaerobic processes.The coculture was grown in a medium containing 15.5 mM sodium lactate and 10 mM Na2SO4. After anaerobic batch incubation for 48 h, the total cell number increased from 1.5 × 108 to 6.6 × 108 ml−1.Marinobacter sp. strain MB cells as identified by the nalidixic acid method were found to constitute 11.8% of the total cell number. The medium flow was then set at a dilution rate of 0.05 h−1.
Sulfate reduction was the main process under these conditions, andD. oxyclinae was the dominant organism. D. oxyclinae oxidized 2 mol of lactate per mol of sulfate reduced. It was therefore possible to estimate the impact of sulfate reduction upon exposure to various levels of oxygen supply (Table 1; Fig.2).
Calculated rates of substrate consumption. (a) Sulfate reduction (shaded bars), lactate utilization via sulfate reduction (vertically striped bars), lactate oxidation by other pathways (open bars), and complete oxidation of lactate (horizontally striped bars). (b) Rates per cell of sulfate reduction (shaded bars), lactate utilization via sulfate reduction (vertically striped bars), lactate oxidation by other pathways (open bars), and complete oxidation of lactate (horizontally striped bars).
Although this type strain was described as an aerobic organism capable of nitrate reduction but not of fermentation, only fermentation of glucose was actually tested (11). Therefore, a washout ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB resulting in an exponential decrease in cell counts could have been expected after the onset of continuous culture. However, the portion of Marinobacter sp. strain MB cells in the coculture remained stable throughout the anoxic stage of the experiment at 8.3% (Fig. 3, upper panel). Subsequent experiments demonstrated that the number of culturable cells of Marinobacter sp. strain MB in steady-state anaerobic chemostat cocultures also remained constant at (9.6 ± 1.1) × 106 ml−1 (Fig. 3, lower panel).
Persistence of Marinobacter sp. strain MB in anoxic chemostats. (Upper) Total cell numbers (●), cells ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB (■), portion ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB (◊, bold line), and expected washout of Marinobacter sp. strain MB (broken line). The onset of medium flow is marked by an arrowhead. (Lower) Protein concentration (●), CFU of Marinobacter sp. strain MB (■), and expected washout of Marinobacter sp. strain MB (broken line) from an anaerobic chemostat coculture of D. oxyclinae and Marinobacter sp. strain MB.
Persistence of Marinobacter sp. strain MB under anaerobic conditions resulted in consumption of more lactate than was possible by sulfate reduction alone. Although 6.6 mmol of sulfate was reduced and 13.2 mmol of lactate was oxidized concurrently, all 15.5 mmol of lactate supplied was consumed. An equimolar amount of acetate was found. Since neither nitrate nor Fe(III) was present in the growth medium, the residual 2.3 mmol of lactate was oxidized to acetate byMarinobacter sp. MB presumably by fermentation. In the reaction lactate + 2 H2O = acetate + HCO3− + H+ + 2 H2, ΔG0′ at 1 atm of H2 is −4 kJ. However, when hydrogen pressure is maintained at 10−4 atm, ΔG0′ of this process is −49.7 kJ (the values for free energy were taken from reference28). Desulfovibrio spp. are known to be capable of scavenging hydrogen to levels below 10−4 atm (32).
If high hydrogen concentrations inhibited fermentative growth ofMarinobacter, intense purging with an inert gas would enable it to grow anaerobically. Indeed, under gassing with nitrogen at the rate of 0.5 1 min−1, Marinobacter sp. strain MB grew in an axenic anaerobic culture either with Casamino Acids (data not shown) or with lactate as the sole carbon and energy source (Fig.4). The expected hydrogen tension under these gassing conditions was 10−2 to 10−3atm. Slow linear growth on lactate was maintained for 4 days. When cessation of growth (as evidenced by decreased cell numbers) was observed, pyruvate was added to the growth vessel to 20 mM. Growth was then maintained for an additional 8 days. No growth by fermenting either lactate or pyruvate was observed in closed test tubes without hydrogen removal. When hydrogen was removed by gassing, only very slow linear fermentative growth of Marinobacter sp. strain MB occurred in axenic cultures, indicating possible inhibition by hydrogen. D. oxyclinae was shown to grow on H2plus acetate (16). Under such growth conditions, it used acetate only as a carbon source and therefore consumed it in relatively minor amounts. D. oxyclinae can therefore keep the hydrogen level low enough to allow efficient fermentative growth ofMarinobacter. The cell yield of 3.7 × 107per mmol of sulfate reduced is close to the yield of 4.1 × 107 cells per mmol of sulfate reduced observed for the axenic culture of D. oxyclinae (25). Hydrogen consumption was therefore possibly not coupled to cell growth and protein synthesis. Acetate accumulated in the growth vessel and was not further oxidized under anaerobic conditions.
Anaerobic growth of Marinobacter sp. on organic acids. An arrowhead indicates addition of pyruvate. ▵, protein; ○, microscopic cell counts; broken line, protein concentration of anaerobic cultures in sealed test tubes.
Microaerophilic processes.Increasing the incoming oxygen concentration to 1% did not result in changes of cell numbers, protein concentration, residual sulfate concentration, and the number ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB cells. A minor decrease in acetate concentration, possibly the result of complete aerobic oxidation by Marinobacter sp. strain MB, was observed, although no increase in the number of Marinobacter cells was found. Yet the concentration of dissolved sulfide decreased 2.6-fold compared to the anaerobic mode.
The high rates of gas flow applied in this experiment make quantitative estimations of sulfide production impossible. Yet under these conditions the concentration of dissolved sulfide was less than that observed under anaerobic conditions and even considerably less than those found later under higher oxygen concentrations. The ratio of 35 μmol of residual dissolved sulfide per mmol of sulfate reduced was fairly constant for the two other, more oxic microaerophilic modes, i.e., 2.5 and 5% oxygen in the incoming gas. Assuming that each value represented the portion of sulfide not removed by gassing, we could have expected 235 μM dissolved sulfide instead of the 108 μM actually found. This means that approximately 3.5 mM residual dissolved sulfide was removed from the growth vessel by other processes, most probably by aerobic sulfide oxidation by D. oxyclinae; 7 mM oxygen was required for this process. Sulfide was found to be aerobically oxidized by D. oxyclinae under low oxygen concentrations of <30 μM (16). The respiration rate determined for this organism under exposure to oxygen was 620 to 700 nmol of O2 min−1 mg of protein−1(26). Assuming equal protein content for cells of D. oxyclinae and Marinobacter sp. strain MB, the respiration rate required to remove 355 μmol of O2h−1 was 172 nmol of O2 min−1 mg of protein−1. The respiration rate ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB was found to be 550 to 560 nmol of O2 min−1 mg of protein−1. Under such conditions, the two organisms competed for oxygen, and due to the predominance of D. oxyclinae it was the main consumer of oxygen. Since the yield of 3.9 × 107D. oxyclinae cells per mmol of sulfate reduced was close to the yield of 3.7 × 107 cells for the anoxic coculture, we conclude that under 1% oxygen in the incoming gas, sulfide oxidation by D. oxyclinae was not coupled to cell growth. Oxygen could be used by D. oxyclinae also for the aerobic oxidation of hydrogen. However, since fermentative growth of Marinobactersp. strain MB remained at the same level as under anaerobic conditions, we can assume that the rate of hydrogen removal by D. oxyclinae did not increase. Aerobic hydrogen oxidation was therefore not an important process.
When gassed with 2.5% oxygen, total cell numbers in the chemostat increased. Marinobacter sp. strain MB now constituted 32.8% of the total cell number. Cell numbers of D. oxyclinae as determined by the nalidixic acid method did not change, although the viable cell numbers as determined by MPN increased. Sulfate reduction decreased 1.8-fold; the amount of sulfate reduced per cell of D. oxyclinae decreased as well. Under this steady-state mode, 26% of acetate produced by anaerobic processes was oxidized completely.
The increased yield of 7.1 × 107D. oxyclinae cells per mmol of sulfate reduced indicated that some process other than sulfate reduction contributed to the growth of this organism. D. oxyclinae can perform aerobic oxidation of both sulfide and lactate. Unlike the case for other oxygen-tolerantDesulfovibrio species (17), aerobic lactate oxidation by D. oxyclinae is a slow process, with a rate of 0.67 nmol min−1 mg of protein−1(16). Aerobic sulfide oxidation is therefore more likely to sustain growth. Free-energy gain of this reaction is −828 kJ.Marinobacter sp. strain MB oxidized 8.16 mM lactate; half of this amount was oxidized completely. Since lactate fermentation continued, it may be concluded that hydrogen consumption by D. oxyclinae persisted via either sulfate reduction or aerobic oxidation. D. oxyclinae was demonstrated to be incapable of anaerobic growth on hydrogen plus CO2 (16). Aerobic H2 oxidation can occur under low oxygen concentrations. We cannot assess the contribution of this reaction to cell growth of D. oxyclinae. Consumption of acetate perMarinobacter cell increased 10-fold between 1 and 2.5% oxygen in the incoming gas and remained almost stable at higher oxygen input levels. Increased cell numbers of Marinobacter sp. strain MB and complete oxidation of 4.1 mM acetate indicated that under these conditions oxygen was consumed mostly by Marinobactersp. strain MB. The toxic effect of oxygen on D. oxyclinaewas therefore relieved.
In the presence of oxygen, the concentration of the terminal products of sulfate reduction may decrease. Sulfide can be removed by aeration, while acetate can be oxidized by Marinobacter sp. strain MB. Thermodynamically, this can increase the free-energy gain of sulfate reduction. However, in the case of the concentration ranges observed in the course of this experiment, the overall energy gain will increase only by 10 to 15% as calculated using the values given by Thauer et al. (28). There were only two electron acceptors available in the growth vessel, namely, sulfate and oxygen. For D. oxyclinae to maintain its growth rate under aerobic conditions, processes using oxygen were required.
Under gassing with 5% oxygen, over 50% of available sulfate was consumed by sulfate reduction, compared to 37% under gassing with 2.5% O2. The sulfate reduction rate was 1.4-fold higher than that observed in the previous mode. The concentration of dissolved sulfide was the highest of all of the microaerophilic modes. Sulfate reduction was the main process performed by D. oxyclinae. The cell yield of D. oxyclinae did not change. All of the lactate was oxidized under these conditions. Acetate concentration in the growth vessel decreased. This implies more pronounced complete aerobic lactate oxidation by Marinobacter sp. strain MB. Both cell numbers and protein concentration increased. The portion ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB cells increased and constituted 36% of the total cell number. The calculated oxygen consumption byMarinobacter sp. strain MB increased 2.6-fold.
Aerobic processes.When the chemostat was bubbled with 10% O2, it became aerobic. Residual dissolved oxygen in the growth vessel was 5 to 8% air saturation, corresponding to 8.3 ± 2.0 μM. Despite a twofold increase in oxygen supply, the calculated oxygen consumption by Marinobacter sp. strain MB increased only by 27%. This suggested that certain aerobic processes were performed by D. oxyclinae. Both the residual sulfate concentration and the sulfate reduction rate were similar to those observed under 2.5% O2, although the residual sulfide concentration was only 96 ± 4 μM. The ratio of dissolved sulfide to sulfate consumed at this stage was lower than those observed under higher or lower oxygen flux, indicating that aerobic sulfide oxidation by D. oxyclinae occurred concomitantly with sulfate reduction. D. oxyclinae remained viable at cell numbers similar to those found under microaerobic conditions at 5% O2. This indicated that sulfide oxidation was not coupled to growth. Marinobacter sp. strain MB numbers increased about threefold to over 70% of the total cell numbers. Total protein also increased significantly and was three times higher than that observed in the anaerobic growth mode. Residual acetate decreased but was still detected at 3.4 ± 0.2 mM. The detection of residual 1.5 mM lactate only under gassing with 10% oxygen is not understood.
A further increase in the oxygen supply by bubbling with air resulted in a dissolved oxygen concentration of 50 to 55% air saturation in the growth vessel. Sulfate reduction still persisted, although the rate of this process decreased markedly to 21% of the rate found under anaerobic conditions. Sulfide was detected in the aerobic chemostat, and 1.4 mM sulfate was reduced. Cell numbers of D. oxyclinaedecreased slightly, and the MPN counts of this organism were less than those obtained under lower oxygen concentrations but were still higher than the values for the anaerobic culture. No evidence of aerobic sulfide oxidation by D. oxyclinae was found. Persistent growth of D. oxyclinae at a rate of 0.05 h−1under aeration when sulfate reduction was seriously impaired required the use of the only other available electron acceptor, oxygen. Under these growth conditions, we assume that both sulfate reduction and aerobic respiration were performed concomitantly by D. oxyclinae. The physiology of this process is presently being studied.
It was the only gassing mode when both lactate and acetate were oxidized completely. Overall cell numbers decreased somewhat, but total protein level increased. The proportion of Marinobacter sp. strain MB did not change significantly compared to the 10% O2 influx mode.
An attempt was made to examine the changes in the proportion ofD. oxyclinae and Marinobacter sp. strain MB during this experiment by DGGE analysis of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA fragments. DGGE analysis revealed the presence of D. oxyclinae in all samples. However, the procedure applied could not detect the presence of Marinobacter even in the aerobic stage of the experiment, where this organism was dominant. When this technique was applied to defined cell mixtures with a ratio ofMarinobacter sp. strain MB to D. oxyclinae of 1:100 to 100:1, Marinobacter 16S rDNA was detected only when the ratio was 15:1 and higher (data not shown).
Concluding remarks.MPN counts showed that D. oxyclinae was present in the fermentor in all of the above-described growth modes. Taking into consideration the inherent inaccuracy of the MPN method (as shown by the 95% confidence intervals in Fig. 1), it may even be concluded that the viable counts of D. oxyclinae did not change significantly throughout the experiment; i.e., it maintained a growth rate of 0.05 h−1. Moreover, the slight increase in the numbers of D. oxyclinae obtained by MPN can indicate increased viability of D. oxyclinaecells under exposure to up to 5% oxygen. Similar results were obtained in the experiment with an axenic culture of D. oxyclinaegassed with 1% O2 (25). Growth of this organism under aeration is attributed at least partially to sulfate reduction. Sulfate reduction was performed by D. oxyclinae even under continuous gassing with air.
While D. oxyclinae has been shown to be capable of aerobic oxidation of hydrogen, sulfide, and lactate (16) and SRB are known to be able to produce ATP by this pathway (7, 8, 20), no oxygen-dependent growth of this organism was previously reported.D. vulgaris was found to be capable of slow linear growth only under very low oxygen levels of less than 0.95 μM (14).
These findings are similar to the results obtained by Gottschal and Szewzyk (12), although the aeration rate of 170 ml of air h−1 applied in their experiments corresponded to an oxygen input rate of 25.3 μmol min−1, almost two times less than the lowest rate applied in our experiments. Moreover, unlikeMarinobacter sp. strain MB, Vibrio strain HP1, the facultatively anaerobic component of the coculture, was specifically selected for its pronounced capability for fermentative growth, and glucose was present in the growth medium as a substrate for fermentation. Van den Ende et al. (30) reported syntrophic growth of a marine Desulfovibrio desulfuricans andThiobacillus thioparus under up to 5.6% oxygen in the gassing mixture. In the coculture of D. oxyclinae andMarinobacter sp. strain MB, a more intricate syntrophic relationship occurs. This organism is well adapted to an aerobic environment and could possibly ameliorate its toxic effects on D. oxyclinae.
D. oxyclinae and Marinobacter sp. strain MB were both isolated from the oxic zone of a cyanobacterial mat where oxygen concentrations vary diurnally from anaerobic conditions in the night to O2 supersaturation at midday (24). The reported association of the two microorganisms is therefore likely to occur naturally. When enriching for oxygen-tolerant SRB, we observed a stable coculture of D. oxyclinae and Marinobacter sp. strain MB. Similar association of D. oxyclinae andArcobacter sp. was previously described by Teske et al. (26). This paper demonstrates that an SRB which was considered to be an obligate anaerobe grows under aerobic conditions when in coculture with a facultative aerobic heterotrophic bacterium. Such bacterial consortia may enable D. oxyclinae to perform sulfate reduction and possibly aerobic respiration under exposure to oxygen concentrations of at least 20%, corresponding to atmospheric air.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was financially sponsored by grants from the German Israel Science Foundation (I-252-131.09), The Red Sea Program for Marine Sciences of the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (03F0151A), and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn, Germany (Ru 458/18).
FOOTNOTES
- Received 21 April 2000.
- Accepted 20 August 2000.
- Copyright © 2000 American Society for Microbiology
