Skip to main content
  • ASM
    • Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
    • Applied and Environmental Microbiology
    • Clinical Microbiology Reviews
    • Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
    • EcoSal Plus
    • Eukaryotic Cell
    • Infection and Immunity
    • Journal of Bacteriology
    • Journal of Clinical Microbiology
    • Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education
    • Journal of Virology
    • mBio
    • Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
    • Microbiology Resource Announcements
    • Microbiology Spectrum
    • Molecular and Cellular Biology
    • mSphere
    • mSystems
  • Log in
  • My alerts
  • My Cart

Main menu

  • Home
  • Articles
    • Current Issue
    • Accepted Manuscripts
    • COVID-19 Special Collection
    • Archive
    • Minireviews
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Scope
    • Editorial Policy
    • Submission, Review, & Publication Processes
    • Organization and Format
    • Errata, Author Corrections, Retractions
    • Illustrations and Tables
    • Nomenclature
    • Abbreviations and Conventions
    • Publication Fees
    • Ethics Resources and Policies
  • About the Journal
    • About AEM
    • Editor in Chief
    • Editorial Board
    • For Reviewers
    • For the Media
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Alerts
    • RSS
    • FAQ
  • Subscribe
    • Members
    • Institutions
  • ASM
    • Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
    • Applied and Environmental Microbiology
    • Clinical Microbiology Reviews
    • Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
    • EcoSal Plus
    • Eukaryotic Cell
    • Infection and Immunity
    • Journal of Bacteriology
    • Journal of Clinical Microbiology
    • Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education
    • Journal of Virology
    • mBio
    • Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
    • Microbiology Resource Announcements
    • Microbiology Spectrum
    • Molecular and Cellular Biology
    • mSphere
    • mSystems

User menu

  • Log in
  • My alerts
  • My Cart

Search

  • Advanced search
Applied and Environmental Microbiology
publisher-logosite-logo

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Articles
    • Current Issue
    • Accepted Manuscripts
    • COVID-19 Special Collection
    • Archive
    • Minireviews
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Scope
    • Editorial Policy
    • Submission, Review, & Publication Processes
    • Organization and Format
    • Errata, Author Corrections, Retractions
    • Illustrations and Tables
    • Nomenclature
    • Abbreviations and Conventions
    • Publication Fees
    • Ethics Resources and Policies
  • About the Journal
    • About AEM
    • Editor in Chief
    • Editorial Board
    • For Reviewers
    • For the Media
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Alerts
    • RSS
    • FAQ
  • Subscribe
    • Members
    • Institutions
Food Microbiology

Interesting Starter Culture Strains for Controlled Cocoa Bean Fermentation Revealed by Simulated Cocoa Pulp Fermentations of Cocoa-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria

Timothy Lefeber, Maarten Janssens, Frédéric Moens, William Gobert, Luc De Vuyst
Timothy Lefeber
Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Maarten Janssens
Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Frédéric Moens
Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
William Gobert
Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Luc De Vuyst
Research Group of Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology, Faculty of Sciences and Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050 Brussels, Belgium
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • For correspondence: ldvuyst@vub.ac.be
DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00594-11
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF
Loading

ABSTRACT

Among various lactic acid bacterial strains tested, cocoa-specific strains of Lactobacillus fermentum were best adapted to the cocoa pulp ecosystem. They fermented glucose to lactic acid and acetic acid, reduced fructose to mannitol, and converted citric acid into lactic acid and 2,3-butanediol.

TEXT

Fermented dry cocoa beans are the basic raw material for chocolate production. Cocoa beans are the seeds of the cocoa tree, Theobroma cacao L. The key microorganisms for successful cocoa bean fermentation processes are yeasts, lactic acid bacteria (LAB), and acetic acid bacteria (AAB) (1, 3–5, 14, 18–21). Although the LAB species diversity involved in the onset of any spontaneous cocoa bean fermentation is wide, not much is known about how cocoa-specific LAB species, such as Lactobacillus fermentum, adapt physiologically and what their targeted functional roles are during fermentation (1, 3, 4, 14, 19–21). The present study aimed at the kinetic investigation of carbohydrate fermentation and citric acid conversion by various LAB strains to unravel this.

The LAB strains used throughout this study are listed in Table 1. Monoculture fermentations were performed in 1.5 liters of a cocoa pulp simulation medium (CPSM) for LAB (16) in Biostat B-DCU fermentors (Sartorius AG/B. Braun Biotech International, Melsungen, Germany) anaerobically for 48 h. Inoculum build-up, fermentor setup, online control of temperature (Table 2), pH profile, agitation, and sampling were as described previously (13, 16). All fermentations were performed in duplicate. The results and figures presented hereinafter are representative for both fermentations.

View this table:
  • View inline
  • View popup
Table 1.

Overview of the cocoa-specific and cocoa-nonspecific strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) used throughout this study

View this table:
  • View inline
  • View popup
Table 2.

Carbohydrate and citric acid consumption and metabolite production of cocoa-specific and cocoa-nonspecific LAB strains in a cocoa pulp simulation medium for lactic acid bacteria

During fermentation, bacterial growth (CFU per ml) was quantified through plating of 10-fold serial dilutions of the samples in saline (0.85% [wt/vol] NaCl solution) on CPSM agar (CPSM containing 1.5% [wt/vol] agar, pH 5.5) that was incubated at the appropriate fermentation temperature for 24 h. Metabolite concentrations were determined through high-performance anion-exchange chromatography using a standard addition protocol (glucose, fructose, mannitol, and citric acid) (15, 23) and high-performance liquid chromatography using external standards (lactic acid, acetic acid, and ethanol) (16). Cell count and metabolite (with external standards) measurements were performed on three independent samples. The errors on the measurements are represented as standard deviations. Gas chromatography (GC) was used for the qualitative determination of 2,3-butanediol and acetoin (15). Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the fermentor gas effluents were determined online through GC (13). The carbon recovery (CR, expressed as percentage) was calculated by dividing the total amount of carbon recovered in the metabolites by the total amount of carbon present in the carbon sources.

All LAB strains tested were able to grow in CPSM (Fig. 1 and Table 2). Strictly heterofermentative LAB strains (all L. fermentum and Weissella strains, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides 22, and Fructobacillus pseudoficulneus M83) fermented glucose, converted citric acid (not in the case of Lc. fermentum IMDO 130101 and F. pseudoficulneus M83 and only at the end of the fermentation in the case of Lc. pseudomesenteroides 22), and reduced fructose (not in the case of Weissella ghanensis LMG P-23179 and Weissella fabaria LMG 24289T). The facultative heterofermentative Lactobacillus plantarum 80 (hardly converted citric acid) and Lactobacillus fabifermentans LMG 24284T (did not convert citric acid) strains fermented glucose and fructose simultaneously, with a preference for fructose. The facultative heterofermentative Lactobacillus cacaonum LMG 24285T fermented fructose but not glucose and converted citric acid. Due to the initial low pH (3.5), Enterococcus casseliflavus M484 and Lactobacillus amylovorus DCE 471 were not able to grow in CPSM.

  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
  • Open in new tab
  • Download powerpoint
Fig. 1.

Bacterial growth, carbohydrate and citric acid consumption, and metabolite production of Lactobacillus fermentum 222 (A), Lactobacillus fermentum M103 (B), Lactobacillus fermentum M158 (C), Lactobacillus fermentum M332 (D), Lactobacillus plantarum 80 (E), Lactobacillus fabifermentans LMG 24284T (F), Lactobacillus fermentum IMDO 130101 (G), Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides 22 (H), Fructobacillus pseudoficulneus M83 (I), Weissella ghanensis LMG P-23179 (J), Weissella fabaria LMG 24289T (K), and Lactobacillus cacaonum LMG 24285T (L) in a cocoa pulp simulation medium for lactic acid bacteria. Glucose, ♦; fructose, ▴; citric acid, •; lactic acid, ⋄; acetic acid, ○; mannitol, ▵; carbon dioxide, —; and bacterial growth, □.

This study showed that cocoa pulp was actually an ideal substrate for strictly heterofermentative (e.g., L. fermentum) and fructophilic LAB species (e.g., F. pseudoficulneus), because it contains a high concentration of fructose (energy source and/or alternative external electron acceptor) and citric acid (additional source of pyruvate). These substrates are used for the oxidation of NADH + H+ to bypass the energy-limiting ethanol pathway and, so, to maximize their growth rate on glucose, thereby producing mannitol and lactic acid plus acetic acid, respectively (16). They are to be consumed under low-pH and anaerobic conditions in the beginning of the cocoa bean fermentation. Citric acid conversion by strictly heterofermentative L. fermentum strains seems to be source dependent, because the sourdough-specific L. fermentum IMDO 130101 strain lacked the ability to convert citric acid. As L. fermentum is strictly heterofermentative and heat, acid, and ethanol tolerant, it usually dominates successful cocoa bean fermentation processes, independent of the cocoa-producing region (3, 4, 10, 14, 19–21). Also, fructophilic LAB species seemed to be well-adapted to the cocoa pulp ecosystem and, indeed, F. pseudoficulneus has been recovered from cocoa bean fermentations (19, 20). They are generally associated with fructose-rich niches and grow on fructose (preferentially) or on glucose in the presence of alternative external electron acceptors (12). Up to now, only strictly heterofermentative LAB species have been reported as fructophilic LAB species. In this study, the facultative heterofermentative L. plantarum 80, L. fabifermentans LMG 24289T, and L. cacaonum LMG 24284T strains were characterized as fructose-loving LAB strains also. This indicates their adaptation to the cocoa pulp habitat. These cocoa-specific strains fermented fructose essentially to lactic acid. Hence, citric acid-converting, mannitol-producing (fructose-reducing), heterolactic, and/or fructose-loving LAB strains are particularly adapted to the cocoa pulp matrix. They represent interesting starter cultures to be exploited for enhanced and controlled cocoa bean fermentations.

In the present study, citric acid conversion by cocoa-specific LAB strains led to the production of the butterlike flavor compounds acetoin (L. cacaonum LMG 24285T, due to fructose homolactate fermentation) and 2,3-butanediol (all cocoa-specific L. fermentum strains, W. fabaria LMG 24289T, and W. ghanensis LMG P-23179, due to the need for extra NAD+ recuperation) (17). These compounds form part of the flavor profile of certain cocoa-based products (2, 11).

LAB species are important for a successful microbial succession during cocoa bean fermentations. Actually, LAB form the link between the ethanol- and flavor-producing yeast fermentation and the acetic acid-producing AAB fermentation (10, 16). The lactic acid and mannitol they produce could serve as extra energy sources for AAB species, while their citric acid conversion results in a rise in pH and a possible contribution to cocoa flavor. So, LAB strains, either as monoculture or coculture, will be essential components of starter cultures aimed at the control of cocoa bean fermentation processes to obtain well-fermented dry cocoa beans and improved standard- and superior-tasting chocolates produced therefrom.

In summary, the kinetics of both aqueous and gaseous metabolite production by cocoa-specific and cocoa-nonspecific LAB strains revealed a deeper insight into their energy and citric acid metabolism and metabolite production patterns. The full meaning of these results for the actual control of cocoa bean fermentations by the use of these strains as appropriate starter cultures is under investigation. Nevertheless, this kinetic study contributes to a better understanding of the functional behavior of cocoa-specific LAB strains to be used as interesting starter cultures for controlled cocoa bean fermentations. In addition, the cocoa-specific L. fermentum strains can be categorized as the ones best adapted to the cocoa pulp ecosystem and show interesting functional roles for the development of a defined starter culture.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was funded by the Research Council of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (OZR, GOA, and IOF projects), the Research Foundation—Flanders, the government agency for Innovation by Science and Technology (IWT-080357), and Barry Callebaut N.V.

In particular, we acknowledge the help of Barry Callebaut Belgium (Nicholas Camu and Herwig Bernaert).

FOOTNOTES

    • Received 16 March 2011.
    • Accepted 19 July 2011.
    • Accepted manuscript posted online 29 July 2011.
  • Copyright © 2011, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

REFERENCES

  1. 1.↵
    1. Ardhana M. M.,
    2. Fleet G. H.
    . 2003. The microbial ecology of cocoa bean fermentations in Indonesia. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 86:87–99.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  2. 2.↵
    1. Caligiani A.,
    2. Acquotti D.,
    3. Cirlini M.,
    4. Palla G.
    . 2010. 1H NMR study of fermented cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) beans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58:12105–12111.
    OpenUrlCrossRef
  3. 3.↵
    1. Camu N.,
    2. et al
    . 2007. Dynamics and biodiversity of populations of lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria involved in spontaneous heap fermentation of cocoa beans in Ghana. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1809–1824.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  4. 4.↵
    1. Camu N.,
    2. et al
    . 2008. Influence of turning and environmental contamination on the dynamics of populations of lactic acid and acetic acid bacteria involved in spontaneous cocoa bean heap fermentation in Ghana. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74:86–98.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  5. 5.↵
    1. Daniel H.-M.,
    2. et al
    . 2009. Yeast diversity of Ghanaian cocoa bean heap fermentations. FEMS Yeast Res. 9:774–783.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  6. 6.
    1. De Bruyne K.,
    2. Camu N.,
    3. De Vuyst L.,
    4. Vandamme P.
    . 2009. Lactobacillus fabifermentans sp. nov. and Lactobacillus cacaonum sp. nov., isolated from Ghanaian cocoa fermentations. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 59:7–12.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  7. 7.
    1. De Bruyne K.,
    2. Camu N.,
    3. De Vuyst L.,
    4. Vandamme P.
    . 2010. Weissella fabaria sp. nov., from a Ghanaian cocoa fermentation. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 60:1999–2005.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  8. 8.
    1. De Bruyne K.,
    2. Camu N.,
    3. Lefebvre K.,
    4. De Vuyst L.,
    5. Vandamme P.
    . 2008. Weissella ghanensis sp. nov., isolated from a Ghanaian cocoa fermentation. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 58:2721–2725.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  9. 9.
    1. De Vuyst L.,
    2. Callewaert R.,
    3. Crabbe K.
    . 1996. Primary metabolite kinetics of bacteriocin biosynthesis by Lactobacillus amylovorus and evidence for stimulation of bacteriocin production under unfavourable growth conditions. Microbiology 142:817–827.
    OpenUrlCrossRefWeb of Science
  10. 10.↵
    1. De Vuyst L.,
    2. Lefeber T.,
    3. Papalexandratou Z.,
    4. Camu N.
    . 2010. The functional role of lactic acid bacteria in cocoa bean fermentation, p. 301–326. In Mozzi F., Raya R. R., Vignolo G. M. (ed.), Biotechnology of lactic acid bacteria: novel applications. Wiley-Blackwell, Ames, IA.
  11. 11.↵
    1. Ducki S.,
    2. Miralles-Garcia J.,
    3. Zumbe A.,
    4. Tornero A.,
    5. Storey D. M.
    . 2008. Evaluation of solid-phase micro-extraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the headspace analysis of volatile compounds in cocoa products. Talanta 74:1166–1174.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  12. 12.↵
    1. Endo A.,
    2. Futagawa-Endo Y.,
    3. Dicks L. M. T.
    . 2009. Isolation and characterization of fructophilic lactic acid bacteria from fructose-rich niches. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 32:593–600.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  13. 13.↵
    1. Falony G.,
    2. et al
    . 2009. In vitro kinetics of prebiotic inulin-type fructan fermentation by butyrate-producing colon bacteria: implementation of online gas chromatography for quantitative analysis of carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas production. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75:5884–5892.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  14. 14.↵
    1. Garcia-Armisen T.,
    2. et al
    . 2010. Diversity of the total bacterial community associated with Ghanaian and Brazilian cocoa bean fermentation samples as revealed by a 16 S rRNA gene clone library. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 87:2281–2292.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  15. 15.↵
    1. Lefeber T.,
    2. Gobert W.,
    3. Vrancken G.,
    4. Camu N.,
    5. De Vuyst L.
    . 2011. Dynamics and species diversity of communities of lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria during spontaneous cocoa bean fermentation in vessels. Food Microbiol. 28:457–464.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  16. 16.↵
    1. Lefeber T.,
    2. Janssens M.,
    3. Camu N.,
    4. De Vuyst L.
    . 2010. Kinetic analysis of strains of lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria in cocoa pulp simulation media to compose a starter culture for cocoa bean fermentation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76:7708–7716.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  17. 17.↵
    1. Mayo B.,
    2. et al
    . 2009. Updates in metabolism of lactic acid bacteria, p. 3–34. In Mozzi F., Raya R. R., Vignolo G. M. (ed.), Biotechnology of lactic acid bacteria: novel applications. Wiley-Blackwell, Ames, IA.
  18. 18.↵
    1. Nielsen D. S.,
    2. Honholt S.,
    3. Tano-Debrah K.,
    4. Jespersen L.
    . 2005. Yeast populations associated with Ghanaian cocoa fermentations analysed using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Yeast 22:271–284.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMedWeb of Science
  19. 19.↵
    1. Nielsen D. S.,
    2. et al
    . 2007. The microbiology of Ghanaian cocoa fermentations analysed using culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 114:168–186.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  20. 20.↵
    1. Papalexandratou Z
    . 2011. Species diversity, community dynamics, and metabolite kinetics of the spontaneous cocoa bean fermentation process worldwide. Ph.D. thesis. Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
  21. 21.↵
    1. Papalexandratou Z.,
    2. Vrancken G.,
    3. De Bruyne K.,
    4. Vandamme P.,
    5. De Vuyst L.
    . 2011. Spontaneous organic cocoa bean box fermentations in Brazil are characterized by a restricted species diversity of lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria. Food Microbiol. 28:1326–1338.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
  22. 22.
    1. Van der Meulen R.,
    2. et al
    . 2007. Population dynamics and metabolite target analysis of lactic acid bacteria during laboratory fermentations of wheat and spelt sourdoughs. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:4741–4750.
    OpenUrlAbstract/FREE Full Text
  23. 23.↵
    1. Vrancken G.,
    2. Rimaux T.,
    3. De Vuyst L.,
    4. Leroy F.
    . 2008. Kinetic analysis of growth and sugar consumption by Lactobacillus fermentum 130101 reveals adaptation to the acidic sourdough ecosystem. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 128:58–66.
    OpenUrlCrossRefPubMed
PreviousNext
Back to top
Download PDF
Citation Tools
Interesting Starter Culture Strains for Controlled Cocoa Bean Fermentation Revealed by Simulated Cocoa Pulp Fermentations of Cocoa-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria
Timothy Lefeber, Maarten Janssens, Frédéric Moens, William Gobert, Luc De Vuyst
Applied and Environmental Microbiology Sep 2011, 77 (18) 6694-6698; DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00594-11

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Print

Alerts
Sign In to Email Alerts with your Email Address
Email

Thank you for sharing this Applied and Environmental Microbiology article.

NOTE: We request your email address only to inform the recipient that it was you who recommended this article, and that it is not junk mail. We do not retain these email addresses.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
Interesting Starter Culture Strains for Controlled Cocoa Bean Fermentation Revealed by Simulated Cocoa Pulp Fermentations of Cocoa-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria
(Your Name) has forwarded a page to you from Applied and Environmental Microbiology
(Your Name) thought you would be interested in this article in Applied and Environmental Microbiology.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Share
Interesting Starter Culture Strains for Controlled Cocoa Bean Fermentation Revealed by Simulated Cocoa Pulp Fermentations of Cocoa-Specific Lactic Acid Bacteria
Timothy Lefeber, Maarten Janssens, Frédéric Moens, William Gobert, Luc De Vuyst
Applied and Environmental Microbiology Sep 2011, 77 (18) 6694-6698; DOI: 10.1128/AEM.00594-11
del.icio.us logo Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo CiteULike logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo
  • Top
  • Article
    • ABSTRACT
    • TEXT
    • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
    • FOOTNOTES
    • REFERENCES
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF

Related Articles

Cited By...

About

  • About AEM
  • Editor in Chief
  • Editorial Board
  • Policies
  • For Reviewers
  • For the Media
  • For Librarians
  • For Advertisers
  • Alerts
  • RSS
  • FAQ
  • Permissions
  • Journal Announcements

Authors

  • ASM Author Center
  • Submit a Manuscript
  • Article Types
  • Ethics
  • Contact Us

Follow #AppEnvMicro

@ASMicrobiology

       

ASM Journals

ASM journals are the most prominent publications in the field, delivering up-to-date and authoritative coverage of both basic and clinical microbiology.

About ASM | Contact Us | Press Room

 

ASM is a member of

Scientific Society Publisher Alliance

 

American Society for Microbiology
1752 N St. NW
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202) 737-3600

Copyright © 2021 American Society for Microbiology | Privacy Policy | Website feedback

 

Print ISSN: 0099-2240; Online ISSN: 1098-5336